Comprehensive Symptom Navigator

Diabetes Mellitus (Type 1 and Type 2)

Category: Endocrine and Metabolic Conditions

Symptoms:
increased thirst; frequent urination; unexplained weight loss; fatigue; blurred vision; slow-healing wounds; tingling or numbness in hands/feet (type 2)

Root Cause:
Type 1

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Fasting blood glucose ≥ 126 mg/dL, HbA1c ≥ 6.5%, oral glucose tolerance test, random blood glucose test.

Treatment:
Type 1

Medications:
Type 1

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Affects approximately 10% of adults worldwide, predominantly Type 2.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Type 1

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Manageable; early treatment reduces the risk of complications.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Cardiovascular disease, kidney disease (nephropathy), eye damage (retinopathy), nerve damage (neuropathy), foot ulcers.

Urinary Tract Infections (UTIs)

Specialty: Senior Health and Geriatrics

Category: Urologic and Renal Disorders

Symptoms:
frequent urination; burning sensation during urination; cloudy or strong-smelling urine; pelvic pain; hematuria (blood in urine); fever (in severe cases)

Root Cause:
Infection caused by bacteria (commonly E. coli) entering the urinary tract, often affecting the bladder or kidneys.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Urinalysis (to check for white blood cells, bacteria, and blood), urine culture (to identify the causative bacteria), and sometimes imaging if recurrent UTIs occur.

Treatment:
Antibiotics are typically prescribed to treat the infection. Hydration and pain management may also be recommended.

Medications:
Antibiotics such as nitrofurantoin , trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, or fosfomycin are commonly prescribed. In recurrent infections, a longer course of antibiotics or prophylactic antibiotics may be recommended. These are classified as antimicrobial agents.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
UTIs are one of the most common infections, with older adults being at higher risk due to factors such as decreased immunity and urinary retention.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Female gender, urinary catheter use, diabetes, a weakened immune system, poor hydration, and a history of UTIs.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Most UTIs are easily treated with antibiotics. However, in older adults, infections can be more severe and may require hospital treatment, especially if it progresses to a kidney infection (pyelonephritis).

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Kidney damage, sepsis, and recurrent infections, especially in older adults with comorbidities.

Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH)

Specialty: Senior Health and Geriatrics

Category: Urologic and Renal Disorders

Symptoms:
frequent urination; difficulty starting urination; weak urine stream; dribbling after urination; increased nighttime urination (nocturia); feeling of incomplete bladder emptying

Root Cause:
Enlargement of the prostate gland, which leads to compression of the urethra and obstruction of urinary flow.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Physical exam (including digital rectal exam), prostate-specific antigen (PSA) blood test, urinalysis, ultrasound, and urodynamic testing.

Treatment:
Lifestyle changes (e.g., reducing fluid intake before bed, avoiding bladder irritants), medications, or surgery (in severe cases).

Medications:
Alpha blockers (e.g., tamsulosin ) to relax the muscles in the prostate and bladder neck, and 5-alpha-reductase inhibitors (e.g., finasteride ) to shrink the prostate. In some cases, combination therapy may be used. These medications help to alleviate symptoms and reduce the size of the prostate.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Affects more than 50% of men over the age of 60, with the prevalence increasing with age.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Age, family history, obesity, lack of physical activity, and certain lifestyle factors.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Generally manageable with treatment, but symptoms may worsen over time if untreated. Surgical intervention may be necessary in advanced cases.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Urinary retention, bladder stones, kidney damage, and bladder infections if left untreated.

Cystitis

Specialty: Internal Medicine

Category: Genitourinary and Reproductive Health

Symptoms:
painful urination; frequent urination; pelvic discomfort; cloudy or foul-smelling urine; blood in urine

Root Cause:
Inflammation of the bladder, usually caused by bacterial infection (most commonly Escherichia coli).

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Urinalysis, urine culture.

Treatment:
Antibiotics, hydration, pain relief.

Medications:
Nitrofurantoin , trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, fosfomycin .

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Common, especially in women; affects up to 50% at least once in their lifetime.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Female anatomy, sexual activity, urinary catheter use.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Excellent with treatment.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Recurrent infections, pyelonephritis, chronic bladder inflammation.

Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus

Specialty: Allergies and Immunology

Category: Immunologic Disorders

Sub-category: Autoimmune Disorders

Symptoms:
increased thirst; frequent urination; unintended weight loss; fatigue; blurred vision; slow-healing wounds

Root Cause:
Autoimmune destruction of insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas, leading to insufficient insulin production.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Blood tests for fasting glucose, HbA1c, random glucose levels, or autoantibody testing.

Treatment:
Lifelong insulin therapy (injections or pumps), blood sugar monitoring, healthy diet, and exercise.

Medications:
Insulin therapy and immunomodulatory treatments in experimental stages (e.g., Teplizumab ).

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Accounts for 5–10% of diabetes cases worldwide; often diagnosed in childhood or adolescence.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Genetic predisposition (HLA genes), family history, certain viral infections, low vitamin D levels.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Lifelong condition; manageable with proper treatment, but risk of complications increases with poor glucose control.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Diabetic ketoacidosis, cardiovascular disease, neuropathy, retinopathy, nephropathy.

Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

Specialty: Senior Health and Geriatrics

Category: Chronic Diseases and Multimorbidity

Sub-category: Metabolic and Endocrine Disorders

Symptoms:
increased thirst; frequent urination; fatigue; blurred vision; slow wound healing; numbness or tingling in hands or feet

Root Cause:
Insulin resistance, where the body’s cells do not respond properly to insulin, leading to elevated blood sugar levels. The pancreas eventually cannot produce enough insulin to maintain normal blood sugar levels.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Blood tests including fasting blood glucose, HbA1c (glycated hemoglobin), or an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT).

Treatment:
Lifestyle changes (diet and exercise), blood sugar monitoring, oral medications (e.g., metformin), and insulin therapy in some cases.

Medications:
Metformin (an oral biguanide that improves insulin sensitivity and reduces glucose production in the liver), sulfonylureas (e.g., glimepiride ), SGLT2 inhibitors (e.g., empagliflozin ), GLP-1 agonists (e.g., liraglutide ), and insulin.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Affects approximately 9.3% of the global population, with a higher prevalence in older adults.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Age, family history, obesity, physical inactivity, high blood pressure, high cholesterol, and an unhealthy diet.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Can be managed with lifestyle changes and medications, though long-term complications can arise if blood sugar levels are not well-controlled.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Cardiovascular disease, kidney disease, nerve damage, eye damage, poor wound healing, and increased risk of infections.

Diabetic Ketoacidosis (DKA)

Specialty: Diabetes and Endocrinology

Category: Diabetes Mellitus and Related Disorders

Sub-category: Acute Complications

Symptoms:
excessive thirst; frequent urination; nausea; vomiting; abdominal pain; shortness of breath; fruity-smelling breath; confusion

Root Cause:
Insulin deficiency leads to uncontrolled hyperglycemia, lipolysis, and ketone production, causing metabolic acidosis.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Blood tests showing high blood glucose, ketonemia, low bicarbonate, and arterial blood pH < 7.3; urine tests for ketones.

Treatment:
Intravenous fluids, insulin therapy, electrolyte replacement (potassium), and treating underlying causes (e.g., infection).

Medications:
Regular insulin administered intravenously to reduce blood glucose and ketone levels.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Common in individuals with type 1 diabetes; can occur in type 2 diabetes during severe stress.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Poor diabetes management, infection, trauma, surgery, or missed insulin doses.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Early treatment leads to recovery; delayed treatment may result in coma or death.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Cerebral edema, hypokalemia, arrhythmias, and death.

Urinary tract infections (UTIs)

Specialty: Pediatrics

Category: Miscellaneous Conditions

Sub-category: Renal and Urologic Disorders

Symptoms:
pain or burning during urination; frequent urination; urgent need to urinate; cloudy or foul-smelling urine; fever; abdominal pain; bedwetting in children; irritability in infants

Root Cause:
Caused by bacterial infections, most commonly Escherichia coli, entering the urinary tract and proliferating.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Diagnosed through a urinalysis (checking for white blood cells, nitrites, or bacteria in urine) and urine culture to identify the causative organism.

Treatment:
Antibiotics are prescribed based on the sensitivity of the causative bacteria. Increased fluid intake and pain relievers may be recommended.

Medications:
Antibiotics such as amoxicillin-clavulanate, cephalexin (cephalosporins), or trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (sulfonamide class) are commonly prescribed. In more severe cases, intravenous antibiotics like ceftriaxone (third-generation cephalosporin) may be used.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Affects about 3–5% of children annually; more common in girls than boys after the neonatal period.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Female anatomy, improper wiping, constipation, urinary stasis, previous UTI, and vesicoureteral reflux (VUR).

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Excellent with timely treatment; most children recover completely without complications.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
If untreated, can lead to kidney infection (pyelonephritis), sepsis, or long-term kidney damage such as scarring.

Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA)

Specialty: Emergency and Urgent Care

Category: Endocrine and Metabolic Emergencies

Sub-category: Diabetes-Related Emergencies

Symptoms:
nausea; vomiting; abdominal pain; rapid breathing; fruity-scented breath; confusion; excessive thirst; frequent urination

Root Cause:
DKA occurs due to insufficient insulin, leading to uncontrolled hyperglycemia, ketone production, and metabolic acidosis.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Clinical evaluation, laboratory tests showing hyperglycemia (blood glucose >250 mg/dL), ketonemia, ketonuria, low bicarbonate levels (<18 mEq/L), and an elevated anion gap metabolic acidosis.

Treatment:
Immediate fluid resuscitation (IV fluids), insulin therapy, electrolyte replacement (especially potassium), and addressing precipitating factors (e.g., infections).

Medications:
Regular insulin (short-acting insulin for IV infusion to lower blood glucose and suppress ketone production), potassium supplements (for electrolyte correction), bicarbonate (in severe acidosis cases, though used cautiously).

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Common in individuals with type 1 diabetes and occasionally in type 2 diabetes under stress or illness.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Poor diabetes management, infections, physical or emotional stress, skipping insulin doses, undiagnosed diabetes.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Favorable if treated promptly; mortality is low with appropriate intervention but rises if untreated.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Cerebral edema (especially in children), hypokalemia, cardiac arrhythmias, hypoglycemia, and multi-organ failure in severe cases.

Diabetes during pregnancy

Specialty: Diabetes and Endocrinology

Category: Diabetes Mellitus and Related Disorders

Sub-category: Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM)

Symptoms:
increased thirst; frequent urination; fatigue; blurred vision; unexplained weight changes; nausea; slow-healing infections

Root Cause:
Insulin resistance due to hormonal changes during pregnancy, combined with an inability of the pancreas to produce sufficient insulin to maintain normal glucose levels.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Diagnosis is through glucose screening tests such as the oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) conducted during the second trimester (usually between 24 and 28 weeks of pregnancy).

Treatment:
Management involves dietary modifications, regular physical activity, blood glucose monitoring, and, if needed, medications to regulate blood sugar levels.

Medications:
Insulin therapy is the primary treatment if blood sugar cannot be controlled through lifestyle changes. Additionally, oral medications such as metformin (a biguanide that improves insulin sensitivity) or glyburide (a sulfonylurea that increases insulin secretion) may be prescribed in some cases.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Gestational diabetes affects approximately 6-9% of pregnancies globally, with higher rates in certain populations.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Family history of diabetes; overweight or obesity; advanced maternal age; previous history of gestational diabetes; ethnic predisposition (e.g., South Asian, African-American, Hispanic); polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS)

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Most women with gestational diabetes return to normal glucose levels after delivery. However, they remain at higher risk of developing type 2 diabetes in the future.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Macrosomia (large baby size); increased risk of cesarean delivery; neonatal hypoglycemia; respiratory distress syndrome in newborn; increased risk of preeclampsia for the mother; future metabolic disorders in both mother and child

Maturity-Onset Diabetes of the Young (MODY)

Specialty: Genetics

Category: Genetic Contributions to Common Diseases

Sub-category: Endocrine Disorders

Symptoms:
mild hyperglycemia; frequent urination; excessive thirst; unintended weight loss; fatigue; blurry vision

Root Cause:
Caused by mutations in single genes (e.g., HNF1A, HNF4A, GCK) that regulate insulin production, leading to beta-cell dysfunction in the pancreas.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Genetic testing for MODY mutations, fasting glucose tests, HbA1c levels, and family history of early-onset diabetes.

Treatment:
Tailored to the subtype; dietary management, oral medications, or insulin therapy (depending on mutation and severity).

Medications:
Sulfonylureas (e.g., glipizide , gliclazide) are often effective in MODY caused by HNF1A or HNF4A mutations. Insulin may be required for other subtypes. GCK-MODY typically does not require treatment.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Rare; estimated to affect 1–2% of all diabetes cases globally.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Family history of early-onset diabetes without typical Type 1 or Type 2 diabetes features, autosomal dominant inheritance.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Generally good if correctly diagnosed and treated; untreated, mild hyperglycemia may lead to long-term complications.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Increased risk of cardiovascular disease, kidney damage, retinopathy, and misdiagnosis leading to incorrect treatment.

Neonatal Diabetes

Specialty: Diabetes and Endocrinology

Category: Diabetes Mellitus and Related Disorders

Sub-category: Other Specific Types of Diabetes

Symptoms:
failure to thrive; dehydration; severe hyperglycemia; frequent urination; weight loss in newborns

Root Cause:
Genetic mutations affecting insulin production or secretion, typically presenting in the first six months of life.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Genetic testing for mutations in genes like KCNJ11 or ABCC8; fasting glucose levels, C-peptide levels, and ketones.

Treatment:
Sulfonylureas in cases of ATP-sensitive potassium channel mutations, or insulin therapy if necessary.

Medications:
Sulfonylureas (e.g., glibenclamide) are commonly used; in some cases, insulin therapy is required to manage blood sugar levels.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Approximately 1 in 90,000 to 160,000 live births worldwide.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Genetic mutations, consanguinity, and family history of early-onset diabetes.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Varies depending on the mutation; many children achieve good control with oral medications, though some require lifelong insulin therapy.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Growth and developmental delays, diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA), and long-term microvascular or macrovascular complications.

Secondary Diabetes

Specialty: Diabetes and Endocrinology

Category: Diabetes Mellitus and Related Disorders

Sub-category: Other Specific Types of Diabetes

Symptoms:
hyperglycemia; frequent urination; excessive thirst; weight loss; symptoms related to the underlying condition (e.g., cushing’s syndrome or acromegaly)

Root Cause:
Insulin resistance or deficiency caused by an underlying medical condition (e.g., Cushing's syndrome, acromegaly) or medications (e.g., glucocorticoids).

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Blood glucose levels, HbA1c testing, OGTT, and assessment for underlying conditions via imaging or hormonal studies.

Treatment:
Managing the underlying condition, lifestyle changes, and glucose-lowering medications (e.g., metformin, insulin).

Medications:
Insulin for glycemic control; metformin to improve insulin sensitivity; glucocorticoid antagonists if due to steroid therapy.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Varies widely depending on the prevalence of underlying conditions (e.g., 2-4% of people on long-term steroid therapy develop secondary diabetes).

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Long-term glucocorticoid therapy, tumors affecting hormone production, genetic predisposition to insulin resistance.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Good with treatment of the underlying condition and proper glycemic control; outcomes depend on the severity of the primary disease.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Microvascular and macrovascular complications if glycemic control is not achieved, complications related to the primary condition.

Pancreatic Diabetes (Type 3c Diabetes)

Specialty: Diabetes and Endocrinology

Category: Diabetes Mellitus and Related Disorders

Sub-category: Other Specific Types of Diabetes

Symptoms:
chronic hyperglycemia; digestive issues (e.g., steatorrhea); weight loss; frequent urination; excessive thirst

Root Cause:
Damage to the pancreas due to chronic conditions like pancreatitis, cystic fibrosis, or pancreatic surgery, impairing insulin and digestive enzyme production.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Fasting glucose, HbA1c, C-peptide levels, imaging of the pancreas (e.g., CT or MRI), and fecal elastase for exocrine insufficiency.

Treatment:
Insulin therapy for hyperglycemia, pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy (PERT) for digestive insufficiency, and dietary modifications.

Medications:
Insulin (short-acting and basal types) for glucose control; pancreatic enzyme replacements (e.g., pancrelipase ) for digestion.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Estimated in 5-10% of diabetes cases; underdiagnosed.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Chronic pancreatitis, cystic fibrosis, hemochromatosis, pancreatic surgery, or trauma.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Challenging to manage; requires coordinated care for endocrine and exocrine dysfunctions.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Severe hypoglycemia, malnutrition due to digestive enzyme deficiencies, and long-term complications of poorly controlled diabetes (e.g., retinopathy, nephropathy).

Hyperosmolar Hyperglycemic State (HHS)

Specialty: Diabetes and Endocrinology

Category: Diabetes Mellitus and Related Disorders

Sub-category: Acute Complications

Symptoms:
extreme thirst; frequent urination; dry mouth; weakness; confusion; seizures; coma

Root Cause:
Severe hyperglycemia leads to osmotic diuresis and dehydration without significant ketone production.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Blood tests showing extremely high blood glucose (>600 mg/dL), high plasma osmolality, and absence or low levels of ketones.

Treatment:
Intravenous fluids, insulin therapy, and electrolyte replacement.

Medications:
Regular insulin administered intravenously to control blood glucose levels.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Rare; primarily occurs in elderly individuals with type 2 diabetes.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Dehydration, infections, poorly controlled diabetes, or medications (e.g., steroids).

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
High mortality rate if untreated; early intervention improves outcomes.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Severe dehydration, shock, thromboembolism, and death.

Primary Aldosteronism (Conn’s Syndrome)

Specialty: Diabetes and Endocrinology

Category: Adrenal Disorders

Sub-category: Adrenal Hyperfunction

Symptoms:
high blood pressure resistant to standard treatments; low potassium levels; muscle weakness; frequent urination; fatigue; headaches; tingling or cramping in muscles

Root Cause:
Overproduction of aldosterone from an adrenal adenoma (tumor) or bilateral adrenal hyperplasia, leading to excessive sodium retention and potassium loss.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Diagnosed by measuring aldosterone-to-renin ratio and adrenal imaging.

Treatment:
Treated with aldosterone antagonists or surgical removal of the affected adrenal gland.

Medications:
Medications include spironolactone or eplerenone (aldosterone receptor antagonists) and amiloride (a potassium-sparing diuretic).

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Accounts for 5–10% of all cases of hypertension; more common in individuals with resistant hypertension.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Family history, hypertension, obesity, and age (middle-aged adults are at higher risk).

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Excellent with proper management, but untreated cases may lead to severe cardiovascular and renal complications.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Cardiovascular disease, kidney damage, stroke, and persistent hypertension.

Interstitial Cystitis (IC)

Specialty: Senior Health and Geriatrics

Category: Urologic and Renal Disorders

Symptoms:
chronic pelvic pain; frequent urination; urgency to urinate; pain during or after urination; pain during intercourse

Root Cause:
A chronic bladder condition characterized by inflammation, irritation, or injury to the bladder lining, leading to pain and urinary symptoms. The exact cause is unknown but may involve autoimmune reactions or bladder tissue damage.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Diagnosis is often based on symptoms and exclusion of other conditions. Cystoscopy with hydrodistention and urine tests may also be used to rule out other causes.

Treatment:
Treatment focuses on symptom management through lifestyle changes, bladder training, physical therapy, and medications. In some cases, bladder instillations or surgical treatments may be considered.

Medications:
Oral medications such as amitriptyline (a tricyclic antidepressant), pentosan polysulfate sodium (for bladder lining protection), and antihistamines may be used. These medications are classified as analgesics, antidepressants, and bladder protectants.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Affects an estimated 3 to 8 million people in the U.S., with women being more commonly affected.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Gender (more common in women), age (often occurs in middle-aged individuals), a history of urinary tract infections, and certain autoimmune conditions.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Symptoms can be managed, but the condition is chronic and may have periods of flare-ups and remission. Complete resolution is uncommon.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Bladder scarring, reduced bladder capacity, and the impact of chronic pain on quality of life.

Urinary Tract Infection (UTI)

Specialty: Senior Health and Geriatrics

Category: Infectious Diseases

Sub-category: Common Infections

Symptoms:
frequent urination; burning sensation during urination; cloudy or foul-smelling urine; pelvic pain; low fever; incontinence; confusion or agitation in elderly

Root Cause:
UTIs are caused by the invasion of bacteria (typically E. coli) into the urinary tract, leading to inflammation and infection. In older adults, UTIs can present with more subtle or atypical symptoms, such as confusion.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Diagnosis is through urinalysis, urine culture, and sometimes imaging tests to check for complications like kidney stones or anatomical abnormalities.

Treatment:
UTIs are primarily treated with antibiotics such as trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, ciprofloxacin, or nitrofurantoin.

Medications:
Antibiotics are commonly prescribed, such as nitrofurantoin (a nitrofuran), ciprofloxacin (a fluoroquinolone), or trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (a combination antibiotic). These are classified as antibiotics.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
UTIs are very common in the elderly, with up to 25% of older women and 15% of older men experiencing them.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Female gender, catheter use, urinary retention, diabetes, weakened immune system, and anatomical abnormalities.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
With appropriate antibiotic treatment, the prognosis is generally favorable, although recurrent UTIs are common in older adults.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Pyelonephritis (kidney infection), sepsis, and chronic kidney disease in severe or untreated cases.

Calcium Oxalate Stones

Specialty: Nephrology

Category: Kidney Stones and Urologic Disorders

Sub-category: Nephrolithiasis (Kidney Stones)

Symptoms:
severe pain in the flank or lower back; pain radiating to the lower abdomen and groin; hematuria (blood in urine); frequent urination; nausea and vomiting; feeling of incomplete bladder emptying

Root Cause:
Accumulation of calcium and oxalate in the kidneys forms crystals, which grow into stones due to supersaturation of urine with these substances.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Imaging studies like non-contrast CT scan, X-ray of the abdomen, or ultrasound; urine analysis to detect crystals and assess urine pH; blood tests for calcium, oxalate, and kidney function.

Treatment:
Pain management with NSAIDs or opioids, increased fluid intake, dietary modifications to reduce oxalate and sodium, medical therapy to reduce stone recurrence, and, in some cases, lithotripsy or surgical removal.

Medications:
Thiazide diuretics (e.g., hydrochlorothiazide ) to reduce calcium excretion; potassium citrate to alkalinize urine and reduce stone formation; allopurinol if high uric acid levels are present.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Approximately 10–15% of the population worldwide will develop kidney stones during their lifetime; calcium oxalate stones are the most common type, accounting for 70–80% of cases.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
High dietary intake of oxalate-rich foods, dehydration, hypercalciuria, obesity, metabolic syndrome, and certain genetic predispositions.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Good with proper management and lifestyle changes; recurrence is common without preventive measures.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Recurrence of stones, urinary tract obstruction, infection, chronic kidney disease, and, in severe cases, kidney failure.

Uric Acid Stones

Specialty: Nephrology

Category: Kidney Stones and Urologic Disorders

Sub-category: Nephrolithiasis (Kidney Stones)

Symptoms:
flank pain; blood in urine; frequent urination; cloudy or foul-smelling urine; urinary urgency

Root Cause:
High levels of uric acid in the urine, often due to acidic urine pH, lead to the formation of uric acid crystals and stones.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Urine pH measurement, 24-hour urine collection, and imaging studies such as a CT scan or ultrasound.

Treatment:
Increased hydration to dilute urine, dietary changes to reduce purine intake, urine alkalinization with potassium citrate, and sometimes dissolution therapy.

Medications:
Allopurinol (xanthine oxidase inhibitor) to lower uric acid production; potassium citrate to increase urine pH.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
More common in individuals with gout or metabolic syndrome; accounts for about 5–10% of all kidney stones.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
High-purine diet, dehydration, obesity, gout, chronic diarrhea, and genetic predisposition.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Usually manageable with dietary changes and medications; recurrence can be prevented with proper therapy.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Chronic obstruction, urinary tract infections, kidney damage, and recurrence of stones.

Pyelonephritis (Acute and Chronic)

Specialty: Nephrology

Category: Infections and Infectious Conditions

Symptoms:
fever; chills; flank pain; nausea; vomiting; painful urination; frequent urination; cloudy or foul-smelling urine; fatigue

Root Cause:
Infection of the kidney, often caused by ascending bacterial infection from the bladder, typically due to E. coli or other uropathogens.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Urinalysis (showing pyuria, bacteriuria, hematuria), urine culture, blood tests (e.g., elevated white blood cell count), imaging studies (e.g., ultrasound or CT scan if complications are suspected).

Treatment:
Antibiotics are the primary treatment. Severe cases may require hospitalization for intravenous antibiotics and supportive care. Chronic pyelonephritis may need surgical correction of underlying anatomical issues.

Medications:
Acute cases

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Common in sexually active women, with higher rates in those with recurrent urinary tract infections. Chronic cases are rare and often associated with anatomical abnormalities or obstruction.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Female gender, pregnancy, recurrent UTIs, diabetes, urinary tract obstruction, vesicoureteral reflux, catheterization.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Excellent with timely treatment; chronic cases may lead to kidney scarring and impaired function.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Sepsis, renal abscesses, chronic kidney disease, hypertension.

Diabetes Mellitus (Diabetic Nephropathy)

Specialty: Nephrology

Category: Systemic Diseases with Renal Involvement

Symptoms:
proteinuria (protein in the urine); swelling (edema) in the legs and ankles; elevated blood pressure; fatigue; nausea; frequent urination; unexplained weight loss

Root Cause:
Chronic high blood sugar levels damage the glomeruli in the kidneys, impairing their ability to filter waste and leading to progressive kidney dysfunction.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Urine tests to detect proteinuria, blood tests for serum creatinine and estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR), kidney biopsy in unclear cases.

Treatment:
Blood sugar control via lifestyle changes and medications, blood pressure management, dietary modifications (e.g., low-protein diet), and supportive care to prevent progression.

Medications:
Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors (e.g., lisinopril ) or angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs) (e.g., losartan ) to reduce proteinuria and protect kidney function; sodium-glucose co-transporter-2 (SGLT2) inhibitors (e.g., empagliflozin ) to improve glycemic control and delay kidney damage; insulin or oral hypoglycemics (e.g., metformin ) for blood sugar management; diuretics to manage fluid retention.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Affects approximately 20–40% of individuals with diabetes; more common in long-standing Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Poor blood sugar control, long duration of diabetes, hypertension, obesity, family history of kidney disease, smoking.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Early-stage diabetic nephropathy can be slowed with proper management, but advanced stages may lead to end-stage renal disease (ESRD) requiring dialysis or transplantation.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Chronic kidney disease (CKD), end-stage renal disease (ESRD), cardiovascular disease, increased risk of infections.

Prostate Cancer

Specialty: Oncology

Category: Solid Tumors

Sub-category: Genitourinary Cancers

Symptoms:
frequent urination; weak or interrupted urine flow; blood in urine or semen; pelvic discomfort; bone pain (in advanced stages); erectile dysfunction

Root Cause:
Uncontrolled growth of malignant cells in the prostate gland, often due to genetic mutations and hormonal imbalances.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Digital rectal exam (DRE), prostate-specific antigen (PSA) blood test, biopsy, MRI, and bone scans for staging.

Treatment:
Surgery (radical prostatectomy), radiation therapy, hormone therapy, chemotherapy, and targeted therapy (e.g., PARP inhibitors).

Medications:
Medications include androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) agents such as leuprolide (a GnRH agonist) and enzalutamide (an androgen receptor inhibitor). Chemotherapy drugs like docetaxel or cabazitaxel and targeted agents like olaparib (a PARP inhibitor) may also be prescribed.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Prostate cancer is the second most common cancer in men worldwide, with an estimated 1.4 million cases annually.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Older age (over 50), African ancestry, family history of prostate cancer, BRCA1/BRCA2 mutations, high-fat diet.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Generally favorable if detected early; localized prostate cancer has a 5-year survival rate of nearly 100%, but metastatic cases have a poorer outlook.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Urinary incontinence, erectile dysfunction, bone metastases, and complications from treatment like bowel dysfunction.

Bladder Cancer

Specialty: Oncology

Category: Solid Tumors

Sub-category: Genitourinary Cancers

Symptoms:
blood in urine (hematuria); frequent urination; painful urination; pelvic pain; back pain (in advanced stages)

Root Cause:
Abnormal growth of malignant cells in the bladder lining, often linked to tobacco exposure or carcinogenic chemicals.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Urinalysis, cystoscopy, biopsy, urine cytology, CT urogram, or MRI.

Treatment:
Transurethral resection of bladder tumor (TURBT), intravesical therapy (e.g., BCG), chemotherapy, immunotherapy, and radical cystectomy in advanced cases.

Medications:
Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) is an immunotherapy for non-invasive bladder cancer. Chemotherapy agents include cisplatin and gemcitabine . Immune checkpoint inhibitors such as pembrolizumab (PD-1 inhibitor) may also be used.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Bladder cancer is the 10th most common cancer worldwide, with over 570,000 cases annually.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Smoking, occupational exposure to chemicals (e.g., dyes, rubber), chronic bladder inflammation, and age (more common in individuals over 55).

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Varies based on stage; early-stage bladder cancer has a high recurrence rate but good survival with treatment. Advanced stages have a poorer prognosis.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Urinary obstruction, kidney damage, metastasis to other organs, and complications from radical surgery.

Ovarian Cancer

Specialty: Oncology

Category: Solid Tumors

Sub-category: Gynecologic Cancers

Symptoms:
abdominal bloating or swelling; pelvic or abdominal pain; difficulty eating or feeling full quickly; frequent urination; fatigue; unexplained weight loss; menstrual irregularities

Root Cause:
Uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells in the ovaries, often originating from the epithelial lining of the ovary.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Physical exam, pelvic exam, transvaginal ultrasound (TVUS), CT or MRI imaging, CA-125 blood test, and biopsy.

Treatment:
Treatment typically includes surgery (e.g., oophorectomy or debulking surgery), chemotherapy, and targeted therapy.

Medications:
Platinum-based chemotherapy agents (e.g., carboplatin , cisplatin ), taxanes (e.g., paclitaxel , docetaxel ), PARP inhibitors (e.g., olaparib , niraparib , rucaparib ), and anti-angiogenesis drugs (e.g., bevacizumab ).

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Affects approximately 1 in 78 women; lifetime risk is about 1.3%.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Family history, BRCA1/BRCA2 gene mutations, Lynch syndrome, early menstruation or late menopause, nulliparity, and endometriosis.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Prognosis depends on the stage at diagnosis; 5-year survival rate is approximately 49%, with higher survival rates for early-stage disease.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Intestinal obstruction, ascites, metastasis to distant organs, recurrence, and complications related to treatment such as neuropathy or anemia.

Hypercalcemia of Malignancy

Specialty: Oncology

Category: Sarcomas

Sub-category: Paraneoplastic Syndromes

Symptoms:
nausea; vomiting; constipation; abdominal pain; fatigue; confusion; thirst; frequent urination; muscle weakness

Root Cause:
Malignant tumors release calcium into the bloodstream, often through secretion of parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP) or osteolytic bone metastasis.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Blood tests showing elevated calcium levels, alongside confirmation of underlying malignancy through imaging or biopsy.

Treatment:
Hydration, bisphosphonates (such as zoledronic acid), denosumab, corticosteroids, and calcitonin.

Medications:
Bisphosphonates (e.g., zoledronic acid) inhibit bone resorption, and denosumab , a monoclonal antibody, works by inhibiting osteoclast activity. Corticosteroids (e.g., dexamethasone ) may be used if there is an underlying hematologic malignancy. Calcitonin helps to lower calcium levels by inhibiting osteoclast function.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Affects approximately 10-20% of patients with advanced cancer.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Patients with lung, breast, or hematologic cancers, and those with extensive bone metastasis.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
The prognosis depends on the underlying malignancy and the ability to control calcium levels. Treatment of the underlying cancer can improve the prognosis.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Severe hypercalcemia can cause kidney failure, arrhythmias, coma, and, if untreated, death.

Chronic Bacterial Prostatitis

Specialty: Infectious Diseases

Category: Bacterial Infections

Symptoms:
pain in the pelvic area; dysuria; frequent urination; painful ejaculation; recurrent urinary tract infections (utis)

Root Cause:
Persistent infection of the prostate gland by bacteria, most commonly Escherichia coli.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Prostatic fluid culture. Urine tests before and after prostatic massage. Ultrasound or MRI for structural abnormalities.

Treatment:
Prolonged antibiotic therapy. Pain management and supportive care.

Medications:
Fluoroquinolones (e.g., ciprofloxacin or levofloxacin ). Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (antibiotic combination).

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Common among men aged 30-50 years.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Previous prostate infections, urinary tract abnormalities, or a history of UTIs.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Can be effectively treated with antibiotics, but recurrence is common.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Chronic pain, abscess formation, infertility.

Nonbacterial Prostatitis

Specialty: Infectious Diseases

Category: Chronic Pelvic Pain Disorders

Sub-category: Prostatitis Syndromes

Symptoms:
pelvic pain; difficulty urinating; pain during ejaculation; testicular discomfort; frequent urination; low-grade fever (occasionally)

Root Cause:
Inflammation of the prostate without evidence of bacterial infection, possibly due to autoimmune, stress, or muscle spasm factors.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Exclusion of bacterial infection through urinalysis and culture, prostate fluid examination, and symptom assessment.

Treatment:
Multimodal approach including pain management, pelvic floor therapy, and lifestyle modifications.

Medications:
Alpha-blockers (tamsulosin ), anti-inflammatory medications (ibuprofen ), and occasionally neuropathic pain medications (amitriptyline ) or muscle relaxants (diazepam ).

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Accounts for 90–95% of chronic prostatitis cases; common in men aged 30–50 years.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Stress, sedentary lifestyle, previous urological infections, pelvic trauma.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Chronic but manageable; symptoms often fluctuate in intensity and respond variably to treatment.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Sexual dysfunction, urinary retention, psychological distress.

Pathophysiology of Complicated Urinary Tract Infection (UTI)

Specialty: Infectious Diseases

Category: Genitourinary Tract Infections

Symptoms:
frequent urination; painful urination (dysuria); fever; flank pain; hematuria; cloudy or foul-smelling urine; fatigue

Root Cause:
Structural or functional abnormalities of the urinary tract, immune compromise, or bacterial resistance leading to persistent or severe infection.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Urine culture, urinalysis, imaging studies (CT, ultrasound), blood tests for systemic infection markers.

Treatment:
Tailored antibiotic therapy based on culture results, addressing underlying abnormalities, hydration, and supportive care.

Medications:
Fluoroquinolones (e.g., ciprofloxacin ) or extended-spectrum cephalosporins (e.g., ceftriaxone ) are common; carbapenems (e.g., meropenem ) may be used for multidrug-resistant cases. These are classified as antibiotics.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Complicated UTIs represent approximately 20–30% of urinary tract infections, more common in hospitalized or immunocompromised patients.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Catheter use, kidney stones, diabetes, pregnancy, immune suppression, anatomical abnormalities.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Generally good with appropriate treatment, but can lead to recurrent infections or systemic complications if untreated.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Pyelonephritis, sepsis, renal abscess, chronic kidney disease.

Trigonitis

Specialty: Infectious Diseases

Category: Genitourinary Tract Infections

Symptoms:
pelvic pain; frequent urination; burning sensation during urination; urgency; cloudy or bloody urine

Root Cause:
Chronic inflammation of the bladder trigone, often associated with repeated infections or irritation.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Cystoscopy to visualize inflammation or changes in the bladder trigone area; urinalysis to rule out active infection.

Treatment:
Addressing the underlying cause (e.g., infections or irritants), bladder instillations, and medications for symptom relief.

Medications:
Antibiotics for bacterial infection (e.g., nitrofurantoin ), anticholinergics (e.g., oxybutynin ) for overactive bladder symptoms, or local anesthetics (e.g., lidocaine instillations).

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Common in individuals with recurrent urinary infections; more prevalent in women.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Recurrent UTIs, use of indwelling catheters, hormonal changes, bladder irritants (e.g., caffeine, spicy foods).

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Good with management; chronic symptoms may persist if underlying causes are not addressed.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Chronic pelvic pain, recurrent infections, reduced bladder capacity, or bladder wall thickening.

Urinary Tract Infection (UTI) and Cystitis (Bladder Infection) in Females

Specialty: Infectious Diseases

Category: Genitourinary Tract Infections

Symptoms:
frequent urination; burning sensation during urination; urgency; lower abdominal pain; cloudy or foul-smelling urine

Root Cause:
Bacterial infection, commonly E. coli, ascending from the urethra to the bladder.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Urinalysis and urine culture to identify pathogens; dipstick test for leukocytes and nitrites.

Treatment:
Short courses of antibiotics; increased fluid intake and symptom management.

Medications:
First-line antibiotics include nitrofurantoin (antibiotic), trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (antibiotic combination), or fosfomycin (antibiotic). Symptomatic relief with phenazopyridine (urinary analgesic).

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Very common; affects approximately 50-60% of women at least once in their lifetime.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Sexual activity, use of spermicides, prior UTIs, menopause, diabetes, urinary retention.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Excellent with treatment; untreated cases may progress to pyelonephritis or sepsis.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Recurrent UTIs, pyelonephritis, kidney damage in severe cases, or urosepsis.

Urinary Tract Infection (UTI) in Males

Specialty: Infectious Diseases

Category: Genitourinary Tract Infections

Symptoms:
frequent urination; burning sensation during urination; cloudy or strong-smelling urine; pelvic pain; fever; chills

Root Cause:
Bacterial infection of the urinary tract, typically caused by Escherichia coli or other gram-negative bacteria.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Urinalysis, urine culture, and physical examination. Imaging (e.g., ultrasound, CT scan) in recurrent or complicated cases.

Treatment:
Antibiotics specific to the organism causing the infection, increased hydration, and symptom management.

Medications:
Fluoroquinolones (e.g., ciprofloxacin , levofloxacin ) or trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole; both are antibiotics targeting bacterial infections.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Less common in males compared to females; affects approximately 1-2% of males annually, higher in older men with prostate problems.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), kidney stones, catheter use, diabetes, and weakened immune system.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Generally good with prompt treatment; may lead to complications if untreated.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Prostatitis, kidney infections (pyelonephritis), or sepsis in severe cases.

Urinary Tract Infections (UTI) in Diabetes Mellitus

Specialty: Infectious Diseases

Category: Genitourinary Tract Infections

Symptoms:
frequent urination; painful urination; incomplete bladder emptying; fatigue; fever

Root Cause:
Hyperglycemia leading to immune dysfunction and increased bacterial colonization in the urinary tract.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Urinalysis, urine culture, blood glucose testing, and assessment for underlying complications.

Treatment:
Antibiotics targeting the causative organism, glycemic control, and preventive measures.

Medications:
Nitrofurantoin , trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, or fluoroquinolones, depending on the organism and resistance.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
More frequent in diabetic patients, with an estimated 2-3x higher risk than the general population.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Poor glycemic control, recurrent UTIs, neuropathy affecting bladder emptying.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Good with early intervention and management of blood sugar levels.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Pyelonephritis, emphysematous cystitis, or urosepsis.