Condition Lookup

Symptoms:
weakness; fatigue; tingling sensations; palpitations; arrhythmias; cardiac arrest in severe cases

Root Cause:
Elevated potassium levels in the blood due to reduced excretion, excessive intake, or cellular release.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Blood tests showing serum potassium >5.0 mEq/L, ECG changes (e.g., peaked T waves), and clinical history.

Treatment:
Stabilization with calcium gluconate, potassium-lowering therapies like insulin, beta-agonists, and dialysis in severe cases.

Medications:
Calcium gluconate (stabilizes cardiac membrane ), insulin with glucose, sodium polystyrene sulfonate , or patiromer (potassium binders).

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Common in patients with renal impairment or on potassium-sparing medications.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Kidney failure, ACE inhibitors, ARBs, potassium supplements, and acidosis.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Good with early intervention; untreated severe hyperkalemia can be fatal.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Cardiac arrhythmias, cardiac arrest, and muscle paralysis.

Hypokalemia

Specialty: Nephrology

Symptoms:
muscle weakness; cramping; fatigue; constipation; arrhythmias; paralysis in severe cases

Root Cause:
Low potassium levels in the blood due to increased loss (e.g., via kidneys or gastrointestinal tract), inadequate intake, or intracellular shifts.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Blood tests showing serum potassium <3.5 mEq/L, ECG changes (e.g., flattened T waves), and clinical history.

Treatment:
Potassium replacement through oral or IV supplementation, addressing the underlying cause.

Medications:
Potassium chloride (oral or IV), potassium-sparing diuretics like spironolactone or eplerenone if necessary.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Common, particularly in patients taking diuretics or with gastrointestinal losses.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Diuretic use, vomiting, diarrhea, malnutrition, and renal tubular disorders.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Excellent with prompt correction; severe cases can result in cardiac arrest.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Arrhythmias, rhabdomyolysis, and paralysis.

Hyponatremia

Specialty: Nephrology

Symptoms:
nausea; vomiting; confusion; headache; seizures; fatigue; restlessness; muscle weakness or spasms; coma in severe cases

Root Cause:
Low sodium concentration in the blood, often caused by excessive water retention, sodium loss, or a combination of both.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Blood tests measuring serum sodium levels (<135 mEq/L), urine sodium and osmolality, and clinical evaluation of symptoms.

Treatment:
Treatment focuses on addressing the underlying cause, restricting fluid intake, or administering sodium supplementation. Severe cases may require hypertonic saline.

Medications:
Tolvaptan or conivaptan (vasopressin receptor antagonists), diuretics like loop diuretics (e.g., furosemide ) for certain cases, and sodium chloride for supplementation.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Common, particularly in hospitalized patients; estimated at 15–30% in such settings.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Heart failure, liver cirrhosis, kidney disease, SIADH, use of diuretics, excessive water intake, and advanced age.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Generally good if treated promptly, but severe hyponatremia can lead to permanent neurological damage or death if untreated.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Cerebral edema, seizures, coma, central pontine myelinolysis (from overly rapid correction).

Hypercalcemia

Specialty: Nephrology

Symptoms:
nausea; vomiting; constipation; polyuria; kidney stones; confusion; lethargy; arrhythmias

Root Cause:
Elevated calcium levels in the blood due to increased bone resorption, excessive intake, or abnormal regulation by parathyroid hormone.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Blood tests showing serum calcium >10.5 mg/dL, PTH levels, and clinical evaluation of symptoms.

Treatment:
IV fluids, bisphosphonates, calcitonin, and addressing the underlying cause (e.g., surgery for hyperparathyroidism).

Medications:
Bisphosphonates (e.g., pamidronate , zoledronic acid), calcitonin (reduces calcium levels), and corticosteroids for specific conditions.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Common, particularly in patients with malignancy or hyperparathyroidism.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Hyperparathyroidism, malignancy, excessive calcium/vitamin D intake, and prolonged immobility.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Good with proper treatment; severe hypercalcemia can lead to renal failure or cardiac arrest.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Kidney stones, nephrocalcinosis, arrhythmias, and neuropsychiatric disturbances.

Acute Kidney Injury (AKI)

Specialty: Nephrology

Symptoms:
decreased urine output; swelling in legs, ankles, or feet; nausea; confusion; fatigue; chest pain or pressure; shortness of breath

Root Cause:
Sudden loss of kidney function due to reduced blood flow, damage to kidney tissue, or blockage of urinary outflow.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Blood tests (e.g., elevated creatinine), decreased urine output, and imaging studies to identify potential obstructions.

Treatment:
Addressing the underlying cause, restoring fluid balance, removing toxins, and temporary dialysis if needed.

Medications:
Medications may include diuretics (e.g., furosemide ), electrolyte binders (e.g., sodium polystyrene sulfonate ), and vasopressors in cases of low blood pressure.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Occurs in approximately 20% of hospitalized patients; higher risk in critical care settings.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Advanced age, pre-existing kidney disease, diabetes, sepsis, major surgery, or exposure to nephrotoxic drugs.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Variable; reversible in many cases, but severe or prolonged AKI can lead to chronic kidney damage or failure.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Electrolyte imbalances, fluid overload, chronic kidney disease, and increased risk of mortality.

Preeclampsia and Eclampsia

Specialty: Nephrology

Sub-category: Pregnancy-Related Kidney Conditions

Symptoms:
high blood pressure; proteinuria; swelling in hands and face; headache; visual disturbances; upper abdominal pain; nausea or vomiting; shortness of breath; seizures in eclampsia

Root Cause:
Abnormal placental development leading to systemic endothelial dysfunction, causing hypertension, proteinuria, and other organ damage.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Blood pressure measurement (greater than or equal to 140/90 mmHg), urine tests for proteinuria, blood tests for liver function, kidney function, and platelet count, and fetal ultrasound for growth assessment.

Treatment:
Blood pressure management, magnesium sulfate to prevent seizures, corticosteroids to accelerate fetal lung maturity if delivery is anticipated, and delivery of the baby as the definitive treatment.

Medications:
Antihypertensives such as labetalol (beta-blocker), hydralazine (vasodilator), or nifedipine (calcium channel blocker); magnesium sulfate (anticonvulsant) for seizure prevention.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Affects 2-8% of pregnancies globally, more common in first-time pregnancies.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
First pregnancy, history of preeclampsia, multiple pregnancies (twins or more), obesity, pre-existing hypertension or diabetes, maternal age <20 or >35, and certain genetic factors.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
With timely treatment, outcomes are generally good; however, severe cases can lead to long-term health issues for both mother and baby.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Eclampsia (seizures), HELLP syndrome, liver or kidney failure, placental abruption, preterm delivery, maternal or fetal death.

Microscopic Polyangiitis

Specialty: Nephrology

Category: Systemic Diseases with Renal Involvement

Sub-category: Vasculitis with Kidney Involvement

Symptoms:
fatigue; fever; weight loss; hematuria (blood in urine); proteinuria; shortness of breath; cough with blood (hemoptysis); joint pain; skin purpura

Root Cause:
Autoimmune-mediated small-vessel vasculitis, characterized by inflammation without granuloma formation, leading to damage in kidneys, lungs, and skin.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Diagnosis involves clinical assessment, ANCA serology (commonly p-ANCA/MPO-ANCA positive), urinalysis for renal involvement, imaging for lung involvement, and kidney biopsy confirming necrotizing vasculitis.

Treatment:
Similar to Granulomatosis with Polyangiitis, treatment focuses on inducing and maintaining remission with immunosuppressive therapy.

Medications:
Commonly prescribed medications include - Glucocorticoids (e.g., prednisone ) for inflammation control. Immunosuppressants (e.g., cyclophosphamide or azathioprine ) for autoimmune suppression. Biologics such as rituximab in refractory cases. Plasma Exchange for life-threatening complications like rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Rare; incidence is approximately 1–3 cases per 100,000 people per year.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Similar to Granulomatosis with Polyangiitis; includes genetic predisposition and environmental triggers.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Better outcomes with early diagnosis and treatment; relapses are common, requiring long-term monitoring and management.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Chronic kidney disease, respiratory failure, infections due to immunosuppression, and thromboembolic events.

Amyloidosis

Specialty: Nephrology

Category: Glomerular Diseases

Symptoms:
proteinuria; swelling in legs and feet; foamy urine; fatigue; unintentional weight loss

Root Cause:
Abnormal deposits of amyloid proteins in the kidneys, disrupting their normal function.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Diagnosed with tissue biopsy (e.g., fat pad, kidney) showing amyloid deposits on Congo red staining.

Treatment:
Treated with underlying disease management, chemotherapy (e.g., bortezomib, cyclophosphamide), or autologous stem cell transplant.

Medications:
For AL (Light Chain) Amyloidosis - Bortezomib (proteasome inhibitor), Cyclophosphamide (chemotherapy agent), Dexamethasone (corticosteroid), Daratumumab (anti-CD38 monoclonal antibody). For ATTR (Transthyretin) Amyloidosis - Tafamidis (transthyretin stabilizer), Patisiran or Inotersen (RNA-based therapies to reduce transthyretin production). For AA (Secondary) Amyloidosis - Anti-inflammatory medications like colchicine for familial Mediterranean fever or IL-1/IL-6 inhibitors for inflammatory conditions.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Rare; AL amyloidosis occurs in approximately 4.5 per 100,000 annually.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Chronic inflammatory diseases, multiple myeloma, and family history of amyloidosis.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Varies widely; early treatment improves outcomes. Untreated, amyloidosis can lead to kidney failure and other organ dysfunction.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Chronic kidney disease, kidney failure, and multi-organ involvement leading to heart, liver, or nervous system complications.

Renal Artery Stenosis

Specialty: Nephrology

Category: Vascular Kidney Diseases

Symptoms:
resistant hypertension; decreased kidney function; pulmonary edema; fatigue; swelling in extremities

Root Cause:
Narrowing of one or both renal arteries due to atherosclerosis or fibromuscular dysplasia reduces blood flow, impairing kidney function and causing hypertension.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Renal Doppler ultrasound, CT angiography, MRI angiography, and kidney function tests.

Treatment:
Blood pressure management, angioplasty with or without stenting, and in rare cases, surgical revascularization.

Medications:
ACE inhibitors or ARBs, beta-blockers, statins (to lower cholesterol), and antiplatelet agents (e.g., aspirin ).

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Common in older adults with atherosclerosis; affects approximately 5-10% of those with coronary artery disease.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Smoking, high cholesterol, diabetes, hypertension, advanced age, and fibromuscular dysplasia.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Good with timely intervention; untreated cases can lead to progressive renal dysfunction and severe hypertension.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Renovascular hypertension, chronic kidney disease, and cardiovascular events like heart attack or stroke.

Diabetic Nephropathy

Specialty: Nephrology

Category: Glomerular Diseases

Sub-category: Diabetes-Related Kidney Diseases

Symptoms:
proteinuria; swelling in the legs and feet; foamy urine; fatigue; high blood pressure

Root Cause:
Chronic high blood sugar levels leading to damage in the glomeruli of the kidneys.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Diagnosed via elevated urine albumin and reduced GFR.

Treatment:
Treated with glycemic control, blood pressure management (ACE inhibitors/ARBs), and lifestyle modifications.

Medications:
ACE inhibitors or ARBs for proteinuria and blood pressure, SGLT2 inhibitors (e.g., dapagliflozin ), GLP-1 receptor agonists (e.g., liraglutide ), and statins for cardiovascular risk.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Affects about 20–40% of patients with diabetes.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Poor glycemic control, long duration of diabetes, hypertension, smoking, obesity, and genetic predisposition.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Progressive without treatment; may lead to end-stage kidney disease requiring dialysis or transplantation.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Kidney failure, cardiovascular disease, and increased risk of infections.

Hypocalcemia

Specialty: Nephrology

Symptoms:
tetany; muscle cramps; paresthesias; seizures; cardiac arrhythmias; dry skin; brittle nails

Root Cause:
Low calcium levels in the blood due to parathyroid hormone deficiency, vitamin D deficiency, or other metabolic disturbances.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Blood tests showing serum calcium <8.5 mg/dL, ionized calcium levels, and clinical evaluation of symptoms.

Treatment:
Calcium supplementation (oral or IV), vitamin D therapy, and treating the underlying cause.

Medications:
Calcium gluconate or calcium chloride (IV), calcium carbonate or citrate (oral), and vitamin D supplements (e.g., calcitriol ).

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Relatively common in hospitalized patients and those with parathyroid disorders.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Hypoparathyroidism, chronic kidney disease, vitamin D deficiency, and magnesium depletion.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Good with timely correction; severe cases can cause life-threatening complications.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Tetany, seizures, cardiac arrest, and cataracts.

Hypermagnesemia

Specialty: Nephrology

Symptoms:
nausea; vomiting; weakness; hypotension; respiratory depression; bradycardia; lethargy; decreased deep tendon reflexes; cardiac arrest in severe cases

Root Cause:
Excess magnesium in the blood, often due to impaired kidney function, excessive magnesium intake, or use of magnesium-containing medications.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Blood tests to measure serum magnesium levels, alongside kidney function tests and electrolyte panels.

Treatment:
Discontinuation of magnesium-containing products, intravenous calcium gluconate (to stabilize cardiac membranes), diuretics to promote magnesium excretion, and dialysis in severe cases.

Medications:
Calcium gluconate (calcium supplement and cardioprotective agent), diuretics such as furosemide (loop diuretic).

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Rare in the general population; more common in individuals with chronic kidney disease or excessive magnesium intake.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Renal failure, use of magnesium-containing antacids or laxatives, and intravenous magnesium therapy.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Excellent with prompt treatment, but severe cases can lead to life-threatening complications.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Cardiac arrest, respiratory failure, and neuromuscular dysfunction.

Hypomagnesemia

Specialty: Nephrology

Symptoms:
muscle cramps; tremors; weakness; fatigue; nausea; vomiting; irritability; confusion; seizures; cardiac arrhythmias (e.g., prolonged qt interval)

Root Cause:
Low magnesium levels in the blood due to inadequate dietary intake, increased excretion via kidneys or gastrointestinal tract, or certain medications.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Blood tests measuring serum magnesium levels; additional evaluations may include kidney function tests and assessment of other electrolytes (e.g., calcium and potassium).

Treatment:
Address underlying causes, magnesium supplementation (oral or intravenous), and correction of associated electrolyte imbalances.

Medications:
Magnesium supplements, such as magnesium oxide (oral) or magnesium sulfate (IV for severe cases). These are electrolyte supplements.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Common in hospitalized patients (up to 10%–20%) and in individuals with chronic illnesses.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Chronic alcoholism, malnutrition, gastrointestinal disorders (e.g., Crohn’s disease), diuretics, proton pump inhibitors, and diabetes.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Generally good with timely diagnosis and treatment, but prolonged or severe cases can lead to significant complications if untreated.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Cardiac arrhythmias, seizures, muscle paralysis, and refractory hypocalcemia or hypokalemia.

Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD)

Specialty: Nephrology

Symptoms:
fatigue; swelling in ankles, feet, or hands; frequent urination, especially at night; nausea; loss of appetite; muscle cramps; itchy skin; shortness of breath

Root Cause:
Gradual loss of kidney function over time due to diabetes, hypertension, or other chronic conditions leading to decreased filtration capacity.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Blood tests (e.g., creatinine and eGFR), urine tests (e.g., protein or albumin levels), imaging studies (e.g., ultrasound), and kidney biopsy in select cases.

Treatment:
Managing underlying conditions (e.g., diabetes, hypertension), lifestyle changes, dietary modifications, and slowing progression with medications like ACE inhibitors or ARBs.

Medications:
Medications may include ACE inhibitors (e.g., lisinopril ), angiotensin receptor blockers (e.g., losartan ), diuretics, phosphate binders, and erythropoiesis-stimulating agents for anemia.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Affects approximately 10% of the global population, with higher prevalence in individuals over 60.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Diabetes, hypertension, cardiovascular disease, obesity, family history of kidney disease, and advanced age.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Variable; early detection and treatment can slow progression, but advanced CKD may progress to end-stage renal disease requiring dialysis or transplantation.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Anemia, electrolyte imbalances, cardiovascular disease, bone disorders, fluid overload, and progression to end-stage renal disease (ESRD).

End-Stage Renal Disease (ESRD)

Specialty: Nephrology

Symptoms:
severe fatigue; fluid retention causing swelling; nausea and vomiting; loss of appetite; persistent itching; shortness of breath; decreased mental sharpness

Root Cause:
Complete or near-complete failure of kidney function, typically resulting from advanced CKD.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
eGFR below 15 mL/min/1.73m², blood tests, and clinical symptoms requiring dialysis or transplantation.

Treatment:
Long-term dialysis (hemodialysis or peritoneal dialysis) or kidney transplantation.

Medications:
Immunosuppressants post-transplant (e.g., tacrolimus , mycophenolate mofetil), phosphate binders, and erythropoietin-stimulating agents.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Affects over 2 million people worldwide on dialysis or living with kidney transplants.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Uncontrolled diabetes and hypertension, prolonged CKD, autoimmune diseases, and family history.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Lifelong dialysis or transplant is required; transplant offers better quality of life and survival.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Cardiovascular disease, infections, bone disorders, and complications related to dialysis or immunosuppressive therapy.

Polycystic Kidney Disease (PKD)

Specialty: Nephrology

Symptoms:
high blood pressure; back or side pain; frequent urinary tract infections; blood in urine; abdominal fullness; kidney stones

Root Cause:
Genetic disorder characterized by the growth of numerous cysts in the kidneys, leading to progressive loss of kidney function.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Ultrasound, CT, or MRI imaging to detect kidney cysts, genetic testing in specific cases, and family history assessment.

Treatment:
Managing hypertension, addressing infections, lifestyle changes, and potentially kidney transplantation in advanced cases.

Medications:
Tolvaptan (vasopressin receptor antagonist) to slow cyst growth, antibiotics for infections, and antihypertensive drugs (e.g., ACE inhibitors or ARBs).

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Affects approximately 1 in 1,000 individuals worldwide.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Family history of PKD, particularly autosomal dominant inheritance.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Progressive disease; many develop CKD or ESRD, requiring dialysis or transplantation. Early management can improve outcomes.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Chronic pain, high blood pressure, kidney stones, recurrent infections, and progression to ESRD.

Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease (ADPKD)

Specialty: Nephrology

Sub-category: Polycystic Kidney Disease

Symptoms:
high blood pressure; abdominal or flank pain; recurrent urinary tract infections; hematuria (blood in urine); kidney stones; early onset of cyst development

Root Cause:
Autosomal dominant genetic mutation in PKD1 or PKD2 genes, leading to cyst development in both kidneys.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Family history, imaging studies (ultrasound or CT), and genetic testing if needed.

Treatment:
Blood pressure control, lifestyle changes, tolvaptan for cyst management, and monitoring for complications.

Medications:
Tolvaptan , antihypertensives (e.g., ACE inhibitors), antibiotics for infections, and analgesics for pain management.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Affects approximately 1 in 400 to 1,000 people, making it one of the most common genetic disorders.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Family history of ADPKD.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Slow progression; about 50% develop ESRD by age 60. Treatment focuses on symptom management and delaying kidney failure.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Cyst rupture, chronic pain, liver cysts, aneurysms, and ESRD.

Autosomal Recessive Polycystic Kidney Disease (ARPKD)

Specialty: Nephrology

Sub-category: Polycystic Kidney Disease

Symptoms:
enlarged kidneys at birth; respiratory distress in newborns; high blood pressure; frequent urinary tract infections; failure to thrive in infants; abdominal distension

Root Cause:
Autosomal recessive genetic mutation in the PKHD1 gene, leading to cyst development in kidneys and liver fibrosis.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Prenatal imaging (ultrasound), neonatal imaging, genetic testing, and clinical symptoms.

Treatment:
Supportive care for kidney function, blood pressure control, managing infections, and potential dialysis or transplantation.

Medications:
Antihypertensives (e.g., ACE inhibitors or ARBs), antibiotics for infections, and supportive treatments for respiratory complications.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Rare, affecting approximately 1 in 20,000 live births.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Both parents carrying a mutation in the PKHD1 gene.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Variable; severe cases may lead to early mortality, while others may live into adulthood with proper management.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Respiratory failure in newborns, liver fibrosis, portal hypertension, and progression to ESRD.

Post-Infectious Glomerulonephritis

Specialty: Nephrology

Category: Glomerular Diseases

Sub-category: Glomerulonephritis

Symptoms:
hematuria (cola-colored urine); proteinuria; edema (swelling); hypertension; fatigue; decreased urine output

Root Cause:
Immune complex deposition in the glomeruli following a streptococcal or other bacterial infection, leading to inflammation and reduced kidney function.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Urinalysis (proteinuria, hematuria), blood tests (elevated anti-streptolysin O titer, decreased complement levels), kidney biopsy if needed, and clinical history of recent infection.

Treatment:
Supportive care including management of hypertension, edema, and maintaining fluid balance; in severe cases, temporary dialysis.

Medications:
Medications include diuretics (e.g., furosemide ) to reduce fluid retention, antihypertensives (e.g., ACE inhibitors or ARBs) to control blood pressure, and antibiotics if the underlying infection is ongoing.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Rare in developed countries, more common in resource-limited settings.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Recent bacterial infection (e.g., streptococcal throat or skin infection), overcrowded living conditions, poor hygiene, children and adolescents.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Generally favorable in children, with spontaneous recovery in most cases; adults may have a slower recovery and higher risk of chronic kidney disease.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Chronic kidney disease, nephrotic syndrome, end-stage renal disease in severe or recurrent cases.

Membranous Nephropathy

Specialty: Nephrology

Category: Glomerular Diseases

Sub-category: Nephrotic Syndrome

Symptoms:
proteinuria; edema (especially around the eyes and ankles); frothy urine; fatigue; weight gain

Root Cause:
Autoimmune or secondary immune-mediated damage to the glomerular basement membrane, resulting in protein leakage into the urine.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Urinalysis (severe proteinuria), kidney biopsy (thickened glomerular basement membrane), blood tests (anti-PLA2R antibodies for primary membranous nephropathy).

Treatment:
Conservative management initially; immunosuppressive therapy (e.g., corticosteroids or calcineurin inhibitors) for high-risk or persistent cases.

Medications:
Medications include corticosteroids (e.g., prednisone ) to reduce inflammation, calcineurin inhibitors (e.g., tacrolimus ), and ACE inhibitors or ARBs to reduce proteinuria and control hypertension.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Most common cause of primary nephrotic syndrome in adults, with an estimated incidence of 0.1–1 per 100,000 population annually.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Autoimmune disorders, infections (e.g., hepatitis B or C), malignancies, certain medications (e.g., NSAIDs), and genetic predisposition.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Variable; some patients achieve spontaneous remission, while others progress to chronic kidney disease or end-stage renal disease.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Thromboembolic events, infections due to nephrotic syndrome, chronic kidney disease.

IgA Nephropathy

Specialty: Nephrology

Category: Glomerular Diseases

Sub-category: Glomerulonephritis

Symptoms:
hematuria (often following an upper respiratory or gastrointestinal infection); proteinuria; edema; hypertension

Root Cause:
Deposition of IgA immune complexes in the glomeruli, causing inflammation and scarring.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Urinalysis (hematuria, proteinuria), kidney biopsy (IgA deposits in the mesangium), and clinical history.

Treatment:
Blood pressure management, dietary modifications, and in severe cases, immunosuppressive therapy.

Medications:
ACE inhibitors or ARBs for blood pressure and proteinuria; corticosteroids (e.g., prednisone ) in high-risk cases.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
The most common primary glomerulonephritis globally, with variable prevalence by region.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Genetic predisposition, male gender, infections, and autoimmune conditions.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Highly variable; some patients experience mild disease, while others progress to end-stage renal disease.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Chronic kidney disease, nephrotic syndrome, end-stage renal disease.

Minimal Change Disease

Specialty: Nephrology

Category: Glomerular Diseases

Sub-category: Nephrotic Syndrome

Symptoms:
severe proteinuria; edema (especially around the eyes and lower limbs); frothy urine; weight gain; fatigue

Root Cause:
Podocyte injury in the glomeruli, leading to abnormal filtration and protein leakage; cause often idiopathic or secondary to medications, infections, or malignancies.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Urinalysis (proteinuria), kidney biopsy (normal appearance under light microscopy, effacement of podocyte foot processes on electron microscopy).

Treatment:
Corticosteroids as first-line treatment; immunosuppressants for steroid-resistant cases.

Medications:
Prednisone (first-line), calcineurin inhibitors (e.g., cyclosporine ) or rituximab in resistant cases.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Most common cause of nephrotic syndrome in children; less common in adults.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Infections, allergies, use of NSAIDs, malignancies (e.g., Hodgkin lymphoma).

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Excellent in children with high rates of remission; adults may have higher relapse rates and slower response to treatment.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Thromboembolic events, infections, acute kidney injury.

Focal Segmental Glomerulosclerosis

Specialty: Nephrology

Category: Glomerular Diseases

Sub-category: Nephrotic Syndrome

Symptoms:
proteinuria; edema; hypertension; reduced kidney function; hematuria

Root Cause:
Scarring of some glomeruli, often due to genetic, primary idiopathic, or secondary causes such as obesity or drug toxicity.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Urinalysis (proteinuria), kidney biopsy (segmental sclerosis in some glomeruli).

Treatment:
Supportive care with blood pressure and proteinuria control, corticosteroids or immunosuppressants for idiopathic forms.

Medications:
Prednisone , calcineurin inhibitors (e.g., tacrolimus ), and ACE inhibitors or ARBs for supportive care.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
A common cause of nephrotic syndrome in adults, particularly in African Americans.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Genetic predisposition, obesity, infections (e.g., HIV), drug use (e.g., heroin).

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Variable; some cases respond to treatment, while others progress to chronic kidney disease.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Chronic kidney disease, end-stage renal disease, thromboembolism.

Crescentic Glomerulonephritis

Specialty: Nephrology

Category: Glomerular Diseases

Sub-category: Rapidly Progressive Glomerulonephritis (RPGN)

Symptoms:
hematuria; proteinuria; rapidly worsening kidney function; edema; fatigue; hypertension

Root Cause:
Severe glomerular inflammation with crescent formation on biopsy, often due to autoimmune diseases (e.g., Goodpasture syndrome, ANCA-associated vasculitis).

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Urinalysis (proteinuria, hematuria), kidney biopsy (crescent formation in glomeruli), serologic tests (e.g., ANCA, anti-GBM antibodies).

Treatment:
Aggressive immunosuppressive therapy and plasmapheresis; dialysis in severe cases.

Medications:
High-dose corticosteroids (e.g., methylprednisolone ), cyclophosphamide , rituximab , and plasmapheresis to remove pathogenic antibodies.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Rare but life-threatening; most common in older adults.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Autoimmune diseases, infections, certain medications, genetic predisposition.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Poor without prompt treatment; variable outcomes with therapy, ranging from partial recovery to chronic kidney disease.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
End-stage renal disease, recurrence of disease, severe hypertension.

Lupus Nephritis

Specialty: Nephrology

Category: Glomerular Diseases

Symptoms:
blood in the urine; foamy urine; swelling in the legs, ankles, or feet; high blood pressure; weight gain due to fluid retention

Root Cause:
Inflammation of the kidneys caused by systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), an autoimmune disease where the immune system attacks the kidney tissues.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Diagnosed with kidney biopsy showing immune complex deposition.

Treatment:
Treated with immunosuppressive medications such as corticosteroids, mycophenolate mofetil, or cyclophosphamide, and supportive care (e.g., ACE inhibitors).

Medications:
Corticosteroids (e.g., prednisone ), immunosuppressants (e.g., mycophenolate mofetil, cyclophosphamide , azathioprine ), and biologics like belimumab . ACE inhibitors or ARBs for blood pressure and proteinuria control.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Occurs in approximately 40–50% of patients with systemic lupus erythematosus, more common in women and certain ethnic groups (e.g., African Americans, Hispanics, and Asians).

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Diagnosis of systemic lupus erythematosus, genetic predisposition, being female, and certain ethnic backgrounds.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Varies based on severity; early diagnosis and aggressive treatment improve outcomes. Advanced cases may lead to chronic kidney disease or kidney failure.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Chronic kidney disease, kidney failure, hypertension, cardiovascular disease, and increased risk of infections due to immunosuppressive therapy.

Goodpasture Syndrome (Anti-GBM Disease)

Specialty: Nephrology

Category: Glomerular Diseases

Symptoms:
hemoptysis (coughing up blood); blood in the urine; foamy urine; shortness of breath; fatigue

Root Cause:
Autoimmune disorder in which antibodies attack the glomerular and alveolar basement membranes.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Diagnosed with anti-GBM antibodies and kidney biopsy.

Treatment:
Treated with plasmapheresis, corticosteroids, and cyclophosphamide.

Medications:
Corticosteroids (e.g., prednisone ), immunosuppressants (e.g., cyclophosphamide ).

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Rare; estimated at 1 case per million annually.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Smoking, exposure to hydrocarbons, and certain genetic predispositions (e.g., HLA-DR15).

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Early diagnosis and aggressive treatment can improve outcomes. Without treatment, can lead to kidney failure and respiratory failure.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Chronic kidney disease, kidney failure, and permanent lung damage.

Membranoproliferative Glomerulonephritis (MPGN)

Specialty: Nephrology

Category: Glomerular Diseases

Sub-category: Immune-Mediated Glomerulopathies

Symptoms:
blood in the urine; foamy urine; swelling in legs and feet; fatigue; hypertension

Root Cause:
Immune-mediated damage to the glomerular capillaries, often associated with immune complex deposition or complement dysregulation.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Diagnosed through kidney biopsy showing mesangial and capillary changes.

Treatment:
Treated with corticosteroids, immunosuppressants, or treatment of underlying causes (e.g., infections).

Medications:
Corticosteroids, immunosuppressants (e.g., mycophenolate mofetil, rituximab ), and antiplatelet agents in some cases.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Rare; incidence is approximately 1 case per million annually.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Chronic infections (e.g., hepatitis C), autoimmune diseases, and complement dysregulation disorders.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Progressive; outcomes depend on the severity and response to treatment. May lead to chronic kidney disease or end-stage renal disease.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Chronic kidney disease, hypertension, and increased risk of cardiovascular events.

Cryoglobulinemic Glomerulonephritis

Specialty: Nephrology

Category: Glomerular Diseases

Sub-category: Vasculitis-Associated Glomerulonephritis

Symptoms:
blood in the urine; foamy urine; swelling in legs and feet; fatigue; purpura (skin rash)

Root Cause:
Immune complex deposition in the kidneys caused by cryoglobulins, proteins that precipitate at low temperatures.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Diagnosed with kidney biopsy and detection of cryoglobulins in blood.

Treatment:
Treated with antiviral therapy for hepatitis C, corticosteroids, plasmapheresis, and rituximab for severe cases.

Medications:
Antiviral therapy for hepatitis C (e.g., direct-acting antivirals), corticosteroids, and rituximab .

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Rare; often associated with chronic hepatitis C.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Chronic hepatitis C infection, autoimmune diseases, and lymphoproliferative disorders.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Variable; treatment of underlying causes improves outcomes. Without treatment, may lead to chronic kidney disease or end-stage renal disease.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Chronic kidney disease, kidney failure, and systemic vasculitis affecting other organs.

Tubulointerstitial Nephritis

Specialty: Nephrology

Category: Tubulointerstitial Diseases

Symptoms:
fatigue; nausea; loss of appetite; fever; rash; joint pain; decreased urine output; blood in urine; edema

Root Cause:
Inflammation of the kidney's tubules and interstitial tissue, often caused by an immune-mediated response to drugs, infections, or systemic diseases.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Urinalysis (presence of white blood cells, red blood cells, or casts), blood tests (elevated creatinine and BUN), imaging (ultrasound or CT for structural abnormalities), kidney biopsy (to confirm inflammation and etiology).

Treatment:
Discontinuing causative agents, managing underlying infections or systemic diseases, corticosteroids or other immunosuppressants in severe cases.

Medications:
Corticosteroids (e.g., prednisone ) to reduce inflammation; antibiotics or antivirals for infection-related causes; immunosuppressive drugs (e.g., azathioprine or cyclosporine ) in autoimmune-associated cases.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Rare, accounting for approximately 10-15% of cases of acute kidney injury.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Use of nephrotoxic medications (e.g., NSAIDs, antibiotics like penicillin), infections (e.g., streptococcus, cytomegalovirus), autoimmune diseases (e.g., lupus, sarcoidosis).

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Generally favorable with early detection and management; chronic kidney damage can occur if treatment is delayed or if the underlying cause persists.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Chronic kidney disease, permanent scarring of the kidneys, electrolyte imbalances, progression to end-stage renal disease.

Acute Interstitial Nephritis

Specialty: Nephrology

Category: Tubulointerstitial Diseases

Symptoms:
fever; rash; joint pain; eosinophilia; hematuria; oliguria; flank pain

Root Cause:
Acute inflammation of the interstitial tissue of the kidneys, usually caused by an allergic or hypersensitivity reaction to drugs or infections.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Urinalysis (eosinophils in urine, sterile pyuria), blood tests (elevated creatinine and eosinophilia), kidney biopsy (interstitial inflammation and edema).

Treatment:
Discontinuation of the offending drug, corticosteroids (e.g., prednisone) to reduce inflammation, supportive care for renal function.

Medications:
Corticosteroids like prednisone are commonly used. In some cases, antihistamines may be used for allergic reactions.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Accounts for 10-15% of cases of acute kidney injury in hospitalized patients.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Use of drugs such as NSAIDs, proton pump inhibitors, and antibiotics; systemic infections; autoimmune diseases.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Usually good with prompt treatment, but delayed intervention may lead to chronic kidney damage.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Acute kidney injury, chronic kidney disease, permanent loss of renal function.

Chronic Interstitial Nephritis

Specialty: Nephrology

Category: Tubulointerstitial Diseases

Symptoms:
fatigue; anemia; polyuria; nocturia; hypertension; mild proteinuria

Root Cause:
Progressive scarring and inflammation of the kidney's tubules and interstitium, often due to chronic exposure to toxins, metabolic disorders, or autoimmune diseases.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Urinalysis (low-level proteinuria, absence of active sediment), imaging (ultrasound showing small, scarred kidneys), kidney biopsy (interstitial fibrosis and tubular atrophy).

Treatment:
Treating underlying causes, avoiding nephrotoxic agents, managing hypertension with ACE inhibitors or ARBs, corticosteroids or immunosuppressants if autoimmune-related.

Medications:
ACE inhibitors (e.g., enalapril ), ARBs (e.g., losartan ), corticosteroids (e.g., prednisone ), and immunosuppressants in certain cases.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Relatively rare, with variable prevalence depending on region and exposure to nephrotoxins.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Long-term use of NSAIDs, exposure to heavy metals, chronic infections, and autoimmune diseases like lupus.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Slow progression with early intervention, but advanced cases can lead to chronic kidney disease and end-stage renal failure.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Chronic kidney disease, electrolyte imbalances, renal failure.

Fanconi Syndrome

Specialty: Nephrology

Category: Tubulointerstitial Diseases

Symptoms:
excessive urination; dehydration; muscle weakness; growth retardation in children; osteomalacia; electrolyte imbalances

Root Cause:
Defective reabsorption in the proximal tubule of the kidney, leading to loss of glucose, amino acids, phosphate, bicarbonate, and other solutes in the urine.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Urinalysis (presence of glucose, phosphate, and amino acids), blood tests (hypokalemia, hypophosphatemia, metabolic acidosis), imaging (bone density scans in adults for osteomalacia).

Treatment:
Addressing the underlying cause (e.g., withdrawal of drugs, treating genetic or metabolic disorders), replacement of lost solutes (e.g., bicarbonate, phosphate, potassium), supportive therapy.

Medications:
Phosphate supplements, potassium citrate (to correct acidosis), and vitamin D analogs (e.g., calcitriol ) to manage bone disorders.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Rare; more common in inherited metabolic disorders or drug toxicity cases.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Inherited disorders (e.g., cystinosis, Wilson's disease), exposure to heavy metals, use of certain drugs (e.g., tenofovir).

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Depends on the underlying cause; treatable with supportive care, but severe cases may progress to chronic kidney disease.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Bone disorders (rickets, osteomalacia), chronic kidney disease, electrolyte imbalances, growth retardation in children.

Hypernatremia

Specialty: Nephrology

Symptoms:
thirst; confusion; irritability; muscle twitching; weakness; seizures; coma in severe cases

Root Cause:
Elevated sodium concentration in the blood due to water loss exceeding sodium loss or excessive sodium intake.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Blood tests measuring serum sodium levels (>145 mEq/L) and clinical evaluation of symptoms.

Treatment:
Gradual rehydration with hypotonic or isotonic fluids, addressing the underlying cause of water loss.

Medications:
No specific medications; treatment focuses on fluid replacement and correcting underlying conditions like diabetes insipidus with desmopressin .

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Less common than hyponatremia; more frequent in elderly patients and those with limited access to water.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Dehydration, diabetes insipidus, hyperaldosteronism, osmotic diuresis, and impaired thirst mechanism.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Good if addressed early, but severe cases can result in brain shrinkage, bleeding, or death.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Cerebral bleeding, thrombosis, and neurological damage.

Metabolic Acidosis

Specialty: Nephrology

Category: Acid-Base Disorders

Symptoms:
rapid breathing (kussmaul respirations); fatigue; confusion; headache; nausea; vomiting; low blood pressure in severe cases

Root Cause:
Accumulation of acid or loss of bicarbonate in the body due to kidney dysfunction, increased acid production, or bicarbonate loss.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Blood gas analysis (low pH, low bicarbonate), anion gap calculation, and electrolyte tests.

Treatment:
Address the underlying cause (e.g., correcting lactic acidosis or ketoacidosis), bicarbonate therapy in severe cases, and supportive care.

Medications:
Sodium bicarbonate (buffer agent), dichloroacetate (used experimentally in certain types of metabolic acidosis).

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Common in hospitalized patients, particularly those in critical care settings.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Chronic kidney disease, diabetes (ketoacidosis), sepsis, and diarrhea.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Dependent on the underlying cause; prompt treatment generally leads to a favorable outcome.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Cardiac arrhythmias, shock, and multiorgan failure if untreated.

Metabolic Alkalosis

Specialty: Nephrology

Category: Acid-Base Disorders

Symptoms:
muscle cramps; weakness; tetany; paresthesias; confusion; irritability; arrhythmias

Root Cause:
Excessive bicarbonate or loss of acid due to vomiting, diuretics, or endocrine disorders.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Blood gas analysis (elevated pH, elevated bicarbonate), and assessment of chloride and potassium levels.

Treatment:
Address underlying cause, chloride or potassium supplementation, and intravenous saline in saline-responsive cases.

Medications:
Potassium chloride (electrolyte supplement), acetazolamide (carbonic anhydrase inhibitor).

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Common in hospitalized patients, especially those on diuretics.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Chronic diuretic use, vomiting, and adrenal gland disorders.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Good with proper treatment; prolonged cases may cause complications.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Cardiac arrhythmias, hypokalemia, and seizures.

Respiratory Acidosis (secondary to renal issues)

Specialty: Nephrology

Category: Acid-Base Disorders

Symptoms:
confusion; fatigue; shortness of breath; headache; cyanosis; drowsiness; tremors

Root Cause:
Impaired CO2 elimination by the lungs, with kidneys unable to adequately compensate by increasing bicarbonate reabsorption.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Blood gas analysis (low pH, elevated pCO2), kidney function tests, and imaging of the lungs.

Treatment:
Improve ventilation (mechanical ventilation if needed), treat underlying renal dysfunction, and correct any electrolyte imbalances.

Medications:
Bronchodilators (e.g., albuterol for reversible airway obstruction), bicarbonate therapy (in severe cases).

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
More common in patients with chronic lung disease and renal dysfunction.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), renal failure, and neuromuscular disorders.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Dependent on the reversibility of the underlying causes; timely intervention improves outcomes.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Coma, cardiac arrhythmias, and respiratory failure.

Respiratory Alkalosis (secondary to renal issues)

Specialty: Nephrology

Category: Acid-Base Disorders

Symptoms:
dizziness; lightheadedness; paresthesias; tetany; confusion; chest pain

Root Cause:
Excessive CO2 elimination (hyperventilation), with the kidneys unable to adequately reduce bicarbonate levels.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Blood gas analysis (elevated pH, low pCO2), and kidney function evaluation.

Treatment:
Treat underlying cause (e.g., anxiety, hypoxemia), slow breathing rate, and correct electrolyte imbalances.

Medications:
Benzodiazepines (e.g., lorazepam for anxiety-induced hyperventilation), no direct renal medications.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Rare; seen in critically ill patients or with severe anxiety disorders.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Anxiety, pulmonary disease, sepsis, and renal dysfunction.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Excellent with proper management of the underlying cause.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Hypocalcemia, cardiac arrhythmias, and seizures in severe cases.

Calcium Oxalate Stones

Specialty: Nephrology

Sub-category: Nephrolithiasis (Kidney Stones)

Symptoms:
severe pain in the flank or lower back; pain radiating to the lower abdomen and groin; hematuria (blood in urine); frequent urination; nausea and vomiting; feeling of incomplete bladder emptying

Root Cause:
Accumulation of calcium and oxalate in the kidneys forms crystals, which grow into stones due to supersaturation of urine with these substances.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Imaging studies like non-contrast CT scan, X-ray of the abdomen, or ultrasound; urine analysis to detect crystals and assess urine pH; blood tests for calcium, oxalate, and kidney function.

Treatment:
Pain management with NSAIDs or opioids, increased fluid intake, dietary modifications to reduce oxalate and sodium, medical therapy to reduce stone recurrence, and, in some cases, lithotripsy or surgical removal.

Medications:
Thiazide diuretics (e.g., hydrochlorothiazide ) to reduce calcium excretion; potassium citrate to alkalinize urine and reduce stone formation; allopurinol if high uric acid levels are present.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Approximately 10–15% of the population worldwide will develop kidney stones during their lifetime; calcium oxalate stones are the most common type, accounting for 70–80% of cases.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
High dietary intake of oxalate-rich foods, dehydration, hypercalciuria, obesity, metabolic syndrome, and certain genetic predispositions.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Good with proper management and lifestyle changes; recurrence is common without preventive measures.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Recurrence of stones, urinary tract obstruction, infection, chronic kidney disease, and, in severe cases, kidney failure.

Uric Acid Stones

Specialty: Nephrology

Sub-category: Nephrolithiasis (Kidney Stones)

Symptoms:
flank pain; blood in urine; frequent urination; cloudy or foul-smelling urine; urinary urgency

Root Cause:
High levels of uric acid in the urine, often due to acidic urine pH, lead to the formation of uric acid crystals and stones.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Urine pH measurement, 24-hour urine collection, and imaging studies such as a CT scan or ultrasound.

Treatment:
Increased hydration to dilute urine, dietary changes to reduce purine intake, urine alkalinization with potassium citrate, and sometimes dissolution therapy.

Medications:
Allopurinol (xanthine oxidase inhibitor) to lower uric acid production; potassium citrate to increase urine pH.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
More common in individuals with gout or metabolic syndrome; accounts for about 5–10% of all kidney stones.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
High-purine diet, dehydration, obesity, gout, chronic diarrhea, and genetic predisposition.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Usually manageable with dietary changes and medications; recurrence can be prevented with proper therapy.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Chronic obstruction, urinary tract infections, kidney damage, and recurrence of stones.

Struvite Stones

Specialty: Nephrology

Sub-category: Nephrolithiasis (Kidney Stones)

Symptoms:
pain in the side, lower back, or pelvis; fever and chills; hematuria; cloudy urine; painful urination

Root Cause:
Formed in alkaline urine due to infections with urease-producing bacteria (e.g., Proteus mirabilis), which break down urea into ammonia.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Imaging studies like X-rays or CT scans to detect large, branched stones (staghorn calculi); urine culture to identify causative bacteria.

Treatment:
Treating the underlying infection with antibiotics, surgical removal of stones (e.g., percutaneous nephrolithotomy), and prevention with long-term urinary acidification.

Medications:
Antibiotics (e.g., ciprofloxacin , amoxicillin-clavulanate) to treat infection; acetohydroxamic acid (urease inhibitor) to prevent stone recurrence.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Less common, accounting for about 10–15% of kidney stones; more frequent in women with recurrent urinary tract infections.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Recurrent UTIs, urinary stasis, indwelling catheters, neurogenic bladder, and certain metabolic conditions.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Requires prompt treatment to prevent complications; good prognosis with successful stone removal and infection control.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Kidney infections, sepsis, renal damage, and loss of kidney function in severe cases.

Cystine Stones

Specialty: Nephrology

Sub-category: Nephrolithiasis (Kidney Stones)

Symptoms:
flank or abdominal pain; recurrent kidney stones; cloudy or foul-smelling urine; urinary urgency and frequency; blood in urine

Root Cause:
Caused by a rare genetic disorder, cystinuria, where excess cystine is excreted in the urine, leading to poorly soluble crystals and stone formation.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Urine analysis showing characteristic hexagonal cystine crystals; 24-hour urine collection for cystine levels; genetic testing for cystinuria.

Treatment:
Increased fluid intake to dilute urine, dietary sodium and protein restriction, urine alkalinization, and, in some cases, surgical removal of stones.

Medications:
Tiopronin or D-penicillamine (thiol-based medications to bind cystine and make it more soluble); potassium citrate to increase urine pH.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Rare, accounting for 1–2% of all kidney stones; more common in individuals with a family history of cystinuria.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Genetic predisposition, dehydration, high sodium intake.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Challenging due to high recurrence rates; manageable with lifelong hydration and therapy.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Recurrent stones, kidney obstruction, infections, and chronic kidney disease.

Obstructive Uropathy

Specialty: Nephrology

Symptoms:
flank pain; difficulty urinating; reduced urine output; hematuria (blood in urine); recurrent urinary tract infections (utis); swelling in lower abdomen; nausea and vomiting

Root Cause:
Partial or complete blockage of urine flow due to conditions like kidney stones, tumors, or ureteral strictures, leading to increased pressure and potential kidney damage.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Diagnosis includes imaging studies such as ultrasound, CT scan, or MRI; urinalysis to detect infection or hematuria; and renal function tests to assess kidney health.

Treatment:
Treatment involves relieving the obstruction through procedures like ureteral stenting, percutaneous nephrostomy, or surgical intervention. Managing underlying causes (e.g., removing kidney stones or treating tumors) is essential.

Medications:
Antibiotics like ciprofloxacin or trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole may be prescribed to manage infections. Diuretics like furosemide may be used cautiously in cases of partial obstruction to improve urine flow. Pain relief is often managed with NSAIDs or opioids.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Common in individuals with predisposing factors like kidney stones, prostate enlargement, or pelvic tumors; prevalence increases with age.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Kidney stones, benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), pelvic or abdominal tumors, urinary tract infections, and congenital abnormalities in the urinary tract.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Depends on timely intervention; reversible if treated early but can lead to permanent kidney damage or chronic kidney disease (CKD) if untreated.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Chronic kidney disease, urinary infections, sepsis, urosepsis, and permanent kidney damage.

Hydronephrosis

Specialty: Nephrology

Symptoms:
flank pain; difficulty urinating; swollen or distended abdomen; nausea and vomiting; recurrent utis; blood in urine; reduced urine output in severe cases

Root Cause:
Swelling of one or both kidneys due to urine buildup caused by an obstruction or other conditions impairing normal urine flow.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Diagnosed with imaging tests such as ultrasound, CT scan, or MRI; urinalysis to identify infections or hematuria; and renal function tests to monitor kidney health.

Treatment:
Treatment includes relieving the obstruction using ureteral stents, nephrostomy tubes, or surgical correction. Treating underlying causes, such as removing stones or addressing structural abnormalities, is also crucial.

Medications:
Antibiotics like amoxicillin or ciprofloxacin to treat or prevent infections; pain relief with NSAIDs or acetaminophen ; diuretics are rarely used but may aid in certain cases to reduce edema.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Common in individuals with obstructive uropathy, kidney stones, or tumors; can occur at any age but is more prevalent in older adults and pregnant women.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Kidney stones, pregnancy (due to compression of the ureters), prostate enlargement, congenital abnormalities of the urinary tract, and recurrent UTIs.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Favorable with early treatment; prolonged obstruction can lead to irreversible kidney damage or renal failure.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Chronic kidney disease, infections, kidney atrophy, and permanent loss of kidney function in severe cases.

Congenital Anomalies of the Kidney and Urinary Tract (CAKUT)

Specialty: Nephrology

Category: Hereditary and Congenital Kidney Disorders

Symptoms:
abnormal kidney structure; frequent urinary tract infections; reduced urine output; high blood pressure; swelling in the body (edema)

Root Cause:
Congenital malformations affecting the kidneys, ureters, bladder, or urethra during fetal development.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Prenatal ultrasounds, postnatal imaging (ultrasound, CT, or MRI), blood tests for kidney function, and urine tests for protein or infection.

Treatment:
Management depends on the specific anomaly; surgical correction, antibiotics for infections, and monitoring kidney function are common approaches.

Medications:
Antibiotics (e.g., trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole) to prevent urinary tract infections, antihypertensives (e.g., ACE inhibitors) to control blood pressure.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Approximately 1 in 500 live births globally.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Family history of kidney anomalies, maternal diabetes, and certain genetic mutations.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Varies widely depending on the severity; many cases are manageable, but severe anomalies may lead to chronic kidney disease.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Chronic kidney disease, recurrent infections, and hypertension.

Medullary Sponge Kidney (MSK)

Specialty: Nephrology

Category: Hereditary and Congenital Kidney Disorders

Symptoms:
blood in urine (hematuria); frequent kidney stones; urinary tract infections; flank pain; increased urinary frequency

Root Cause:
Malformation of the collecting ducts in the kidneys, leading to cystic dilations and impaired urine flow.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Imaging studies, especially CT scans or intravenous pyelograms (IVP), along with urine analysis for stones or infections.

Treatment:
Managing symptoms, preventing infections, and reducing kidney stone formation through dietary modifications and hydration.

Medications:
Potassium citrate (to prevent kidney stones), antibiotics (e.g., ciprofloxacin ) for UTIs, and pain relievers (e.g., acetaminophen ).

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Affects about 1 in 5,000 to 20,000 people.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Family history, metabolic disorders leading to stone formation.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Typically good with proper management; rarely progresses to kidney failure.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Recurrent infections, chronic pain, and kidney damage due to obstructive stones.

Nephronophthisis

Specialty: Nephrology

Category: Hereditary and Congenital Kidney Disorders

Symptoms:
excessive thirst and urination; growth retardation; fatigue; anemia; progressive kidney failure

Root Cause:
Genetic disorder leading to fibrosis and cyst formation in the kidneys, impairing function.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Genetic testing, kidney ultrasound, and biopsy showing interstitial fibrosis and tubular atrophy.

Treatment:
Supportive care, addressing symptoms, and eventual dialysis or kidney transplant.

Medications:
Erythropoietin-stimulating agents (for anemia), antihypertensives (e.g., losartan ) for blood pressure control.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Rare; approximately 1 in 50,000 live births.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Autosomal recessive inheritance; family history.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Progressive condition leading to kidney failure typically by adolescence or early adulthood.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
End-stage renal disease, requiring dialysis or transplantation.

Bartter Syndrome

Specialty: Nephrology

Category: Hereditary and Congenital Kidney Disorders

Symptoms:
polyuria; polydipsia; dehydration; muscle weakness; growth delay in children

Root Cause:
Genetic defect in renal tubules causing electrolyte imbalance (low potassium, high calcium excretion).

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Blood tests for electrolytes, urine analysis, and genetic testing.

Treatment:
Correcting electrolyte imbalances, managing dehydration, and nutritional support.

Medications:
Potassium supplements, aldosterone antagonists (e.g., spironolactone ), and NSAIDs (e.g., indomethacin ) to reduce electrolyte loss.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Rare, estimated 1 in 1,000,000 individuals.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Autosomal recessive inheritance.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Good with appropriate management, though chronic kidney disease may occur.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Kidney damage, failure to thrive in children, and chronic dehydration.

Gitelman Syndrome

Specialty: Nephrology

Category: Hereditary and Congenital Kidney Disorders

Symptoms:
muscle cramps; fatigue; salt craving; low blood pressure; tetany (muscle spasms)

Root Cause:
Genetic defect affecting the renal tubules, leading to low potassium and magnesium levels and reduced blood pressure.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Blood tests for electrolytes, urine analysis, and genetic testing.

Treatment:
Electrolyte supplementation and dietary adjustments.

Medications:
Potassium and magnesium supplements, NSAIDs (e.g., indomethacin ) for symptom control.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Rare; estimated 1 in 40,000 people.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Autosomal recessive inheritance.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Excellent with lifelong supplementation and monitoring.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Muscle weakness, cardiac arrhythmias due to electrolyte imbalances.

Liddle Syndrome

Specialty: Nephrology

Category: Hereditary and Congenital Kidney Disorders

Symptoms:
high blood pressure; low potassium levels; fatigue; muscle weakness; metabolic alkalosis

Root Cause:
Genetic mutation causing the kidneys to retain too much sodium and excrete too much potassium.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Blood tests for electrolytes, genetic testing, and clinical history of hypertension at a young age.

Treatment:
Sodium restriction and potassium-sparing diuretics.

Medications:
Potassium-sparing diuretics (e.g., amiloride , triamterene ).

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Extremely rare; exact prevalence unknown.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Autosomal dominant inheritance.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Good with early diagnosis and treatment; untreated cases may lead to severe cardiovascular issues.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Severe hypertension, hypokalemia, and cardiovascular disease.

Renovascular Hypertension

Specialty: Nephrology

Category: Vascular Kidney Diseases

Symptoms:
high blood pressure resistant to treatment; kidney dysfunction; fluid retention; headaches; dizziness; vision changes

Root Cause:
Narrowing of the renal arteries (renal artery stenosis) reduces blood flow to the kidneys, triggering the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system and causing secondary hypertension.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Blood pressure measurements, renal artery imaging (CT angiography, MRI angiography, Doppler ultrasound), renal function tests (serum creatinine, eGFR), and renin levels.

Treatment:
Lifestyle modifications, blood pressure control, revascularization procedures (angioplasty or stenting), or surgical bypass in severe cases.

Medications:
ACE inhibitors or ARBs (to block renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system activity), beta-blockers (to reduce heart rate and blood pressure), calcium channel blockers, diuretics, and antiplatelet therapy if atherosclerosis is present.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Approximately 1-5% of all cases of secondary hypertension; higher in older adults with atherosclerosis.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Atherosclerosis, smoking, diabetes, hyperlipidemia, advanced age, and fibromuscular dysplasia (in younger individuals).

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Good with early diagnosis and management; untreated cases may lead to progressive kidney damage and cardiovascular complications.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Chronic kidney disease, heart failure, stroke, and hypertensive crises.

Hypertensive Nephropathy

Specialty: Nephrology

Category: Vascular Kidney Diseases

Symptoms:
proteinuria; hematuria; swelling in legs; fatigue; decreased urine output; high blood pressure

Root Cause:
Chronic hypertension damages the small blood vessels in the kidneys, leading to decreased kidney function and scarring (nephrosclerosis).

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Blood pressure readings, urinalysis (proteinuria and hematuria), renal function tests (eGFR, creatinine levels), and imaging (ultrasound, CT).

Treatment:
Blood pressure control through lifestyle changes, medications, and monitoring for kidney function decline.

Medications:
ACE inhibitors, ARBs, diuretics, beta-blockers, and calcium channel blockers.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Common cause of chronic kidney disease, particularly in individuals with long-standing hypertension.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Chronic hypertension, obesity, smoking, diabetes, and family history of kidney disease.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Manageable with effective blood pressure control; progression to end-stage kidney disease is possible if untreated.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Chronic kidney disease, end-stage renal disease, and cardiovascular diseases.

Atheroembolic Renal Disease

Specialty: Nephrology

Category: Vascular Kidney Diseases

Symptoms:
sudden kidney dysfunction; skin changes (blue toes or livedo reticularis); abdominal pain; fever; weight loss

Root Cause:
Cholesterol crystals or debris from atherosclerotic plaques embolize to the renal arteries, causing ischemia and inflammation in the kidneys.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Kidney biopsy, imaging studies (angiography, CT), and lab tests (eosinophilia, elevated creatinine).

Treatment:
Supportive care, management of underlying atherosclerosis, and avoidance of anticoagulation if possible.

Medications:
Statins, antiplatelet agents (e.g., aspirin , clopidogrel ), and occasionally corticosteroids for inflammation.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Rare but increasing with the rise of cardiovascular interventions.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Atherosclerosis, recent vascular procedures, advanced age, and hypertension.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Poor if left untreated; progressive renal dysfunction is common.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Chronic kidney disease, end-stage renal disease, and systemic embolization.

Hemolytic Uremic Syndrome (HUS)

Specialty: Nephrology

Category: Vascular Kidney Diseases

Sub-category: Thrombotic Microangiopathies

Symptoms:
pale skin; fatigue; bloody diarrhea; reduced urination; swelling; bruising; confusion; high blood pressure

Root Cause:
HUS is caused by damage to the small blood vessels in the kidneys, often due to Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC), leading to hemolysis, thrombocytopenia, and acute kidney injury.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Diagnosis involves clinical history (e.g., recent diarrheal illness), blood tests (low hemoglobin, elevated creatinine, fragmented red blood cells on a peripheral smear), stool tests for Shiga toxin, and ADAMTS13 enzyme activity (to rule out TTP).

Treatment:
Treatment includes supportive care such as fluid management, dialysis for severe kidney failure, blood transfusions if needed, and sometimes plasma exchange or eculizumab (in atypical HUS).

Medications:
Treatment may include Eculizumab (a monoclonal antibody targeting complement protein C5, used for atypical HUS), antihypertensive agents (for blood pressure control), and antiplatelet drugs (in certain cases of atypical HUS).

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
HUS is rare, with an incidence of about 2 cases per 100,000 people per year in developed countries.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Consumption of contaminated food, recent gastrointestinal infections (especially with Shiga toxin-producing E. coli), genetic mutations in complement regulation (atypical HUS), and immune suppression.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
With prompt treatment, many patients recover, although atypical HUS has a higher risk of recurrence and long-term complications. Chronic kidney disease or end-stage renal disease may develop in severe cases.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Kidney failure, neurological complications (e.g., seizures, stroke), high blood pressure, and chronic kidney disease.

Pyelonephritis (Acute and Chronic)

Specialty: Nephrology

Category: Infections and Infectious Conditions

Symptoms:
fever; chills; flank pain; nausea; vomiting; painful urination; frequent urination; cloudy or foul-smelling urine; fatigue

Root Cause:
Infection of the kidney, often caused by ascending bacterial infection from the bladder, typically due to E. coli or other uropathogens.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Urinalysis (showing pyuria, bacteriuria, hematuria), urine culture, blood tests (e.g., elevated white blood cell count), imaging studies (e.g., ultrasound or CT scan if complications are suspected).

Treatment:
Antibiotics are the primary treatment. Severe cases may require hospitalization for intravenous antibiotics and supportive care. Chronic pyelonephritis may need surgical correction of underlying anatomical issues.

Medications:
Acute cases

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Common in sexually active women, with higher rates in those with recurrent urinary tract infections. Chronic cases are rare and often associated with anatomical abnormalities or obstruction.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Female gender, pregnancy, recurrent UTIs, diabetes, urinary tract obstruction, vesicoureteral reflux, catheterization.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Excellent with timely treatment; chronic cases may lead to kidney scarring and impaired function.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Sepsis, renal abscesses, chronic kidney disease, hypertension.

Tuberculosis of the Kidney

Specialty: Nephrology

Category: Infections and Infectious Conditions

Sub-category: Tuberculosis

Symptoms:
persistent flank pain; hematuria (blood in urine); dysuria (painful urination); fever; night sweats; weight loss

Root Cause:
Reactivation of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection within the kidney, often secondary to pulmonary tuberculosis.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Urine culture for acid-fast bacilli, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for M. tuberculosis, imaging (CT or ultrasound showing calcifications, strictures, or cavitations).

Treatment:
Antitubercular therapy (ATT) using a combination of first-line drugs, typically for 6-9 months.

Medications:
Rifampin , isoniazid , pyrazinamide , ethambutol . These are classified as antitubercular drugs.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Relatively rare in developed countries but more common in regions with high rates of tuberculosis.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
History of pulmonary tuberculosis, immunosuppression, HIV infection, diabetes.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Good with prompt and appropriate treatment. Delayed treatment may lead to chronic kidney damage.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Chronic kidney disease, renal failure, strictures in the urinary tract, and infertility in severe cases.

Renal Cell Carcinoma (RCC)

Specialty: Nephrology

Category: Oncological Kidney Conditions

Symptoms:
blood in the urine (hematuria); flank pain; a palpable mass in the abdomen or flank; unexplained weight loss; fever; fatigue

Root Cause:
Cancer that originates in the renal tubules, often associated with genetic mutations (e.g., VHL gene mutation) and environmental factors such as smoking.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Imaging studies (ultrasound, CT scan, MRI), biopsy, urine cytology, and laboratory tests such as kidney function tests and complete blood counts.

Treatment:
Surgical removal of the affected kidney (nephrectomy), targeted therapy, immunotherapy, and, in some cases, radiation therapy or chemotherapy.

Medications:
Medications include targeted therapies such as sunitinib (tyrosine kinase inhibitor), cabozantinib (tyrosine kinase inhibitor), and immune checkpoint inhibitors like nivolumab (PD-1 inhibitor) or ipilimumab (CTLA-4 inhibitor). These medications are classified as targeted cancer therapies or immunotherapies.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
RCC accounts for approximately 85% of kidney cancers, with higher rates in males and older individuals (peak incidence at 60-70 years).

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Smoking, obesity, hypertension, family history of RCC, exposure to certain chemicals (e.g., trichloroethylene).

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Early-stage RCC has a high survival rate with treatment, but advanced or metastatic RCC has a more guarded prognosis despite advances in targeted therapies.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Metastasis to lungs, bones, liver, or brain; paraneoplastic syndromes; impaired kidney function due to tumor burden or nephrectomy.

Kidney Involvement in Multiple Myeloma (Myeloma Kidney)

Specialty: Nephrology

Category: Hematologic-Related Kidney Conditions

Symptoms:
fatigue; swelling in legs; decreased urine output; bone pain; frequent infections; nausea and vomiting

Root Cause:
Deposition of light chains in the kidney tubules due to excessive production by malignant plasma cells, leading to tubular obstruction and renal damage.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Blood tests (serum protein electrophoresis, serum free light chains), urine tests (Bence-Jones protein), kidney biopsy, and imaging (X-rays, MRI, or PET scans for bone lesions).

Treatment:
Management of multiple myeloma with chemotherapy, stem cell transplantation, and supportive measures for kidney function, such as avoiding nephrotoxic drugs and adequate hydration.

Medications:
Medications include bortezomib (proteasome inhibitor), lenalidomide (immunomodulatory drug), and dexamethasone (corticosteroid). These are classified as targeted therapies and supportive treatments.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Kidney involvement occurs in approximately 20-50% of multiple myeloma cases.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Multiple myeloma diagnosis, advanced age, male sex, African-American ethnicity.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Prognosis depends on the stage of multiple myeloma and kidney function at the time of diagnosis; early intervention improves outcomes.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Chronic kidney disease, electrolyte imbalances, anemia, and an increased risk of infections.

Diabetes Mellitus (Diabetic Nephropathy)

Specialty: Nephrology

Category: Systemic Diseases with Renal Involvement

Symptoms:
proteinuria (protein in the urine); swelling (edema) in the legs and ankles; elevated blood pressure; fatigue; nausea; frequent urination; unexplained weight loss

Root Cause:
Chronic high blood sugar levels damage the glomeruli in the kidneys, impairing their ability to filter waste and leading to progressive kidney dysfunction.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Urine tests to detect proteinuria, blood tests for serum creatinine and estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR), kidney biopsy in unclear cases.

Treatment:
Blood sugar control via lifestyle changes and medications, blood pressure management, dietary modifications (e.g., low-protein diet), and supportive care to prevent progression.

Medications:
Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors (e.g., lisinopril ) or angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs) (e.g., losartan ) to reduce proteinuria and protect kidney function; sodium-glucose co-transporter-2 (SGLT2) inhibitors (e.g., empagliflozin ) to improve glycemic control and delay kidney damage; insulin or oral hypoglycemics (e.g., metformin ) for blood sugar management; diuretics to manage fluid retention.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Affects approximately 20–40% of individuals with diabetes; more common in long-standing Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Poor blood sugar control, long duration of diabetes, hypertension, obesity, family history of kidney disease, smoking.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Early-stage diabetic nephropathy can be slowed with proper management, but advanced stages may lead to end-stage renal disease (ESRD) requiring dialysis or transplantation.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Chronic kidney disease (CKD), end-stage renal disease (ESRD), cardiovascular disease, increased risk of infections.

Hypertension (Hypertensive Nephropathy)

Specialty: Nephrology

Category: Systemic Diseases with Renal Involvement

Symptoms:
elevated blood pressure; proteinuria; nocturia (frequent urination at night); swelling (edema); fatigue; headaches

Root Cause:
Chronic high blood pressure damages small blood vessels in the kidneys (arterioles), reducing their ability to filter waste and regulate blood pressure.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Blood pressure measurements, urine tests to detect proteinuria, blood tests for serum creatinine and eGFR, renal ultrasound to assess kidney structure.

Treatment:
Blood pressure management through lifestyle changes and antihypertensive medications, dietary salt restriction, and monitoring kidney function to prevent further damage.

Medications:
ACE inhibitors (e.g., enalapril ) or ARBs (e.g., candesartan ) to lower blood pressure and protect kidney function; calcium channel blockers (e.g., amlodipine ) and beta-blockers (e.g., metoprolol ) for additional blood pressure control; diuretics (e.g., furosemide ) to reduce fluid overload.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Approximately 10–15% of individuals with chronic hypertension develop hypertensive nephropathy; more common in older adults and those with poorly controlled hypertension.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Long-standing hypertension, African American ethnicity, obesity, high dietary salt intake, family history of kidney disease.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
With early detection and aggressive blood pressure control, progression to chronic kidney disease can be slowed. Advanced disease may lead to ESRD requiring dialysis or transplantation.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Chronic kidney disease (CKD), end-stage renal disease (ESRD), cardiovascular complications such as heart failure or stroke, increased risk of infections.

Granulomatosis with Polyangiitis (Wegener's)

Specialty: Nephrology

Category: Systemic Diseases with Renal Involvement

Sub-category: Vasculitis with Kidney Involvement

Symptoms:
fatigue; fever; weight loss; sinusitis; nasal crusting; hematuria (blood in urine); shortness of breath; joint pain; skin rashes or ulcers

Root Cause:
Autoimmune-mediated vasculitis affecting small- to medium-sized blood vessels, leading to inflammation and necrosis in multiple organs, particularly the kidneys, lungs, and upper respiratory tract.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Diagnosis involves clinical assessment, laboratory tests (e.g., ANCA test, ESR, CRP), imaging studies (e.g., CT or MRI), and tissue biopsy of affected organs (commonly kidney or nasal tissues).

Treatment:
Treatment focuses on inducing and maintaining remission with immunosuppressive therapy and supportive care.

Medications:
Commonly prescribed medications include - Glucocorticoids (e.g., prednisone ) to reduce inflammation. Immunosuppressants (e.g., cyclophosphamide or methotrexate ) to control autoimmune activity. Biologics such as rituximab , a monoclonal antibody targeting B-cells. Plasma Exchange in severe cases with kidney or lung involvement.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Rare; estimated incidence is 1 in 20,000–30,000 people, with equal distribution across genders and a peak onset between ages 40–65.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Genetic predisposition, environmental triggers (e.g., infections), and possibly silica dust exposure.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Prognosis has improved with treatment, with remission achieved in most cases, but relapses are common; untreated, it can be fatal within a year.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Kidney failure, pulmonary hemorrhage, chronic sinusitis, hearing loss, secondary infections due to immunosuppression.

Scleroderma Renal Crisis

Specialty: Nephrology

Category: Systemic Diseases with Renal Involvement

Symptoms:
severe hypertension; acute kidney injury; headaches; seizures; blurred vision; shortness of breath; fluid retention

Root Cause:
Vascular injury and narrowing of the renal arteries due to systemic sclerosis lead to decreased renal perfusion, activating the renin-angiotensin system and causing a hypertensive crisis.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Clinical presentation (acute hypertension and renal dysfunction), lab tests (elevated serum creatinine, proteinuria), and kidney biopsy (if necessary).

Treatment:
Aggressive blood pressure control, primarily with angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, supportive care for kidney function, and possibly dialysis.

Medications:
ACE inhibitors (e.g., captopril , enalapril ) are the primary treatment. They are antihypertensive medications that inhibit the renin-angiotensin system to lower blood pressure and protect kidney function.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Occurs in approximately 5–10% of patients with systemic sclerosis.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Diffuse systemic sclerosis, anti-RNA polymerase III antibodies, recent use of high-dose corticosteroids.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
With prompt treatment, prognosis has improved, but long-term outcomes depend on kidney function recovery. Untreated cases may lead to irreversible kidney damage or death.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Chronic kidney disease, end-stage renal disease, hypertensive encephalopathy, heart failure.

Sarcoidosis with Renal Manifestations

Specialty: Nephrology

Category: Systemic Diseases with Renal Involvement

Sub-category: Granulomatous Disorders

Symptoms:
hypercalcemia; nephrolithiasis (kidney stones); renal failure; polyuria; polydipsia; fatigue

Root Cause:
Granulomatous inflammation in sarcoidosis leads to dysregulated calcium metabolism and deposition, as well as granuloma formation in the kidneys, impairing renal function.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Lab tests (elevated serum and urinary calcium, elevated angiotensin-converting enzyme levels), kidney biopsy (granulomas), and imaging (renal ultrasound, CT scan).

Treatment:
Corticosteroids to suppress granulomatous inflammation, hydration to prevent hypercalcemia, and management of complications like kidney stones or chronic kidney disease.

Medications:
Prednisone (a corticosteroid) is the primary treatment. It is an anti-inflammatory medication that suppresses granuloma formation and reduces calcium abnormalities.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Sarcoidosis affects 1–5% of the population, with renal involvement in approximately 20–30% of cases.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
African descent, family history of sarcoidosis, female gender, environmental exposures.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Prognosis depends on the extent of renal involvement; early treatment can improve outcomes, but chronic kidney disease may develop in severe cases.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Chronic kidney disease, end-stage renal disease, nephrocalcinosis, recurrent kidney stones.

Rheumatoid Arthritis (Secondary Amyloidosis)

Specialty: Nephrology

Category: Systemic Diseases with Renal Involvement

Sub-category: Inflammatory and Autoimmune Disorders

Symptoms:
proteinuria; edema; fatigue; weight loss; joint pain and swelling

Root Cause:
Chronic inflammation in rheumatoid arthritis leads to deposition of amyloid A protein in the kidneys, causing structural damage and dysfunction.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Lab tests (elevated serum amyloid A protein, proteinuria, renal function tests), kidney biopsy (amyloid deposits confirmed with Congo red staining).

Treatment:
Controlling the underlying rheumatoid arthritis with anti-inflammatory and disease-modifying drugs, alongside supportive treatment for kidney dysfunction.

Medications:
Biological agents (e.g., TNF inhibitors like adalimumab or etanercept ), methotrexate (a disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drug), and supportive medications like diuretics for fluid retention.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Secondary amyloidosis occurs in 5–10% of patients with long-standing, poorly controlled rheumatoid arthritis.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Severe, chronic rheumatoid arthritis, poor disease control, male gender, older age.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
With effective treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, the progression of amyloidosis can be slowed, but established renal damage may be irreversible.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Chronic kidney disease, nephrotic syndrome, heart failure due to systemic amyloidosis, infections.

Hemodialysis-Associated Amyloidosis

Specialty: Nephrology

Category: Dialysis and Transplant-Related Conditions

Sub-category: Dialysis-Associated Complications

Symptoms:
joint pain and stiffness; carpal tunnel syndrome; bone cysts; tendon rupture; systemic fatigue

Root Cause:
Accumulation of Beta 2-microglobulin protein in tissues due to inefficient clearance by long-term hemodialysis.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Blood and urine tests for Beta 2-microglobulin levels, imaging studies (X-ray, CT, or MRI for bone cysts), and tissue biopsy confirming amyloid deposits.

Treatment:
Improved dialysis modalities (high-flux membranes or hemodiafiltration), reduction in dialysis vintage, and kidney transplantation if feasible.

Medications:
Medications are supportive and include nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) for pain and corticosteroids to manage inflammation. Additionally, erythropoiesis-stimulating agents (ESAs) can be prescribed to manage associated anemia.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
More common in patients undergoing long-term hemodialysis, with prevalence increasing significantly after 5-10 years of treatment.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Long duration of hemodialysis, older age, use of low-flux dialysis membranes, chronic inflammation.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Improved with advances in dialysis technology but remains poor in advanced cases without transplantation. Kidney transplantation offers the best outcome.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Bone fractures, severe joint dysfunction, tendon ruptures, systemic amyloidosis affecting other organs (e.g., heart, gastrointestinal system).

Vascular Access Complications

Specialty: Nephrology

Category: Dialysis and Transplant-Related Conditions

Sub-category: Dialysis-Associated Complications

Symptoms:
swelling around the access site; infection (redness, warmth, drainage); pain at the access site; poor blood flow during dialysis; numbness or tingling in the hand or arm

Root Cause:
Issues with the vascular access used for hemodialysis, including stenosis, thrombosis, infection, or aneurysm formation.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Clinical examination, Doppler ultrasound for blood flow assessment, and imaging studies such as angiography to evaluate stenosis or occlusion.

Treatment:
Management depends on the complication

Medications:
Antibiotics for infection (e.g., vancomycin or cefazolin ), anticoagulants such as heparin to manage thrombosis, and antiplatelet agents to prevent clot formation.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
One of the most common complications in patients undergoing long-term hemodialysis, affecting up to 25% of patients annually.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Diabetes, smoking, obesity, prolonged use of the same access site, and improper care of the vascular access.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Generally good with timely treatment; delays can lead to significant morbidity, including loss of the access site or life-threatening infection.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Septicemia, loss of vascular access, upper limb ischemia, and increased mortality if not addressed.

Peritoneal Dialysis Infections

Specialty: Nephrology

Category: Dialysis and Transplant-Related Conditions

Sub-category: Dialysis-Associated Complications

Symptoms:
abdominal pain; cloudy peritoneal dialysis fluid; fever; nausea; redness or drainage at catheter site

Root Cause:
Bacterial or fungal infection of the peritoneal cavity, often caused by contamination during the exchange process or catheter-related issues.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Analysis of peritoneal dialysis fluid for elevated white blood cell count and culture to identify the causative organism.

Treatment:
Antibiotics or antifungal agents administered intraperitoneally or intravenously, catheter removal if the infection is severe or recurrent, and temporary cessation of peritoneal dialysis.

Medications:
First-line treatments include intraperitoneal antibiotics such as vancomycin (for Gram-positive organisms) and ceftazidime (for Gram-negative organisms). Antifungal agents like fluconazole may be prescribed for fungal infections.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Occurs in approximately 20-25% of peritoneal dialysis patients annually.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Poor hygiene during exchanges, diabetes, older age, use of a contaminated catheter, or a history of prior infections.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Good with early and appropriate treatment; untreated or severe cases can lead to peritonitis and necessitate a switch to hemodialysis.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Adhesions, loss of peritoneal membrane function, sepsis, and eventual requirement for a new dialysis modality.

Rejection (Acute and Chronic)

Specialty: Nephrology

Category: Dialysis and Transplant-Related Conditions

Sub-category: Kidney Transplantation

Symptoms:
decreased urine output; swelling; weight gain; high blood pressure; fever; tenderness over the kidney transplant area; general fatigue

Root Cause:
The immune system recognizes the transplanted kidney as foreign and mounts an immune response, leading to damage and potential loss of function.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Blood tests (increased creatinine levels), imaging studies (ultrasound or Doppler), kidney biopsy to confirm immune-mediated damage.

Treatment:
Intensifying immunosuppressive therapy, including corticosteroids or antithymocyte globulin, depending on the severity and type of rejection.

Medications:
Treatments include corticosteroids (e.g., methylprednisolone ), anti-T cell antibodies (e.g., antithymocyte globulin , alemtuzumab ), and immunosuppressive agents (e.g., tacrolimus , cyclosporine ). These medications reduce the immune response to prevent further rejection.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Acute rejection occurs in approximately 10-20% of kidney transplant recipients, while chronic rejection develops in most recipients over time.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Inadequate immunosuppression, poor adherence to medication, donor-recipient mismatch, previous transplant rejections, infections, and HLA incompatibility.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Acute rejection can often be reversed if caught early; chronic rejection leads to gradual kidney failure, requiring dialysis or re-transplantation.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Loss of kidney transplant function, infections due to increased immunosuppression, increased risk of cardiovascular disease, and mortality.

Post-Transplant Infections

Specialty: Nephrology

Category: Dialysis and Transplant-Related Conditions

Sub-category: Kidney Transplantation

Symptoms:
fever; chills; fatigue; pain at the transplant site; difficulty breathing; frequent urination or pain while urinating; wound infections

Root Cause:
Immunosuppressive medications reduce the immune system's ability to fight infections, leading to bacterial, viral, fungal, or opportunistic infections.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Laboratory tests (blood cultures, urine cultures), imaging studies (X-rays, CT scans), and biopsy of infected tissues.

Treatment:
Antimicrobial therapy tailored to the causative agent (e.g., antibiotics, antivirals, or antifungals), reducing immunosuppressive medication temporarily.

Medications:
Antibiotics (e.g., ciprofloxacin , ceftriaxone ), antivirals (e.g., valganciclovir for CMV), and antifungals (e.g., fluconazole for candidiasis). Prophylactic antimicrobials may also be used.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Post-transplant infections occur in about 50% of kidney transplant recipients, varying by type and region.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Immunosuppression, prolonged hospital stays, donor-derived infections, pre-existing infections, and central venous catheters.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Most infections can be managed successfully with prompt treatment; severe or untreated infections can lead to graft loss or death.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Sepsis, organ rejection, prolonged hospitalizations, and reduced graft survival.

Immunosuppression-Related Complications

Specialty: Nephrology

Category: Dialysis and Transplant-Related Conditions

Sub-category: Kidney Transplantation

Symptoms:
increased susceptibility to infections; delayed wound healing; cushingoid appearance; hypertension; hyperglycemia or diabetes; bone density loss; neurological side effects such as tremors

Root Cause:
Immunosuppressive medications suppress the immune system to prevent rejection but also lead to systemic effects and susceptibility to opportunistic infections and metabolic disturbances.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Regular monitoring through blood tests (to check for infections, glucose levels, liver and kidney function), imaging for bone density, and clinical evaluation of symptoms.

Treatment:
Adjusting the doses or types of immunosuppressants, using prophylactic medications, and addressing side effects through adjunctive treatments (e.g., insulin for diabetes, bisphosphonates for bone loss).

Medications:
Immunosuppressive agents (e.g., tacrolimus , mycophenolate mofetil, sirolimus ) cause the complications. Adjunctive treatments include bisphosphonates for osteoporosis, antihypertensives for hypertension, and insulin or oral hypoglycemics for diabetes management.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Affects nearly all kidney transplant recipients to some extent due to the necessary lifelong use of immunosuppressive medications.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Higher doses of immunosuppressive drugs, older age, pre-existing comorbidities, and poor lifestyle habits.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
With careful management, most complications can be mitigated, but some may contribute to long-term morbidity and reduced graft survival.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Chronic infections, malignancies (e.g., skin cancer, lymphomas), metabolic syndrome, osteoporosis, and cardiovascular disease.

NSAIDs, Aminoglycosides, Cisplatin, etc.

Specialty: Nephrology

Sub-category: Drug-Induced Nephrotoxicity

Symptoms:
decreased urine output; swelling (edema); fatigue; nausea; shortness of breath; elevated blood pressure

Root Cause:
These medications can cause direct injury to renal tubular cells, disrupt glomerular filtration, or induce interstitial inflammation. Mechanisms include oxidative stress, vasoconstriction, and impaired renal perfusion.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Diagnosis involves patient history (exposure to nephrotoxic drugs), lab tests (elevated serum creatinine, blood urea nitrogen levels), urine analysis (proteinuria, hematuria), and imaging studies (ultrasound to assess kidney structure).

Treatment:
Discontinuation of the offending drug, supportive care, and measures to enhance renal recovery (hydration, electrolyte balance). In severe cases, dialysis may be required.

Medications:
Treatment includes medications like N-acetylcysteine (antioxidant used to mitigate cisplatin-induced toxicity), diuretics (loop diuretics like furosemide for volume control), and electrolyte supplements for disturbances. Medications to manage complications like antihypertensives may also be prescribed.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Drug-induced nephrotoxicity is reported in approximately 10-25% of hospitalized patients exposed to nephrotoxic agents.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
Pre-existing renal impairment; Advanced age; Concurrent use of multiple nephrotoxic drugs; Dehydration; Diabetes; Hypertension

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Prognosis varies depending on the extent of kidney damage and timely intervention. Acute kidney injury (AKI) caused by drugs is often reversible, but delayed treatment can lead to chronic kidney disease (CKD).

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Progression to chronic kidney disease; Electrolyte imbalances; Fluid overload; Increased risk of cardiovascular events; Need for long-term dialysis in severe cases

HELLP Syndrome

Specialty: Nephrology

Sub-category: Pregnancy-Related Kidney Conditions

Symptoms:
right upper abdominal pain; nausea; vomiting; headache; swelling; high blood pressure; fatigue; visual disturbances

Root Cause:
Severe form of preeclampsia characterized by hemolysis (H), elevated liver enzymes (EL), and low platelet count (LP). It reflects systemic endothelial dysfunction and microangiopathy.

How it's Diagnosed: videos
Blood tests showing hemolysis (schistocytes on blood smear), elevated liver enzymes (AST/ALT), low platelet count (<100,000/µL), and signs of end-organ damage; urine tests for proteinuria; imaging if indicated.

Treatment:
Delivery of the baby as the definitive treatment; supportive care with blood pressure management, magnesium sulfate for seizure prevention, and transfusions (platelets, red blood cells) if necessary.

Medications:
Antihypertensives such as labetalol or nifedipine , magnesium sulfate (anticonvulsant), and corticosteroids (e.g., dexamethasone ) to improve platelet count and fetal lung maturity.

Prevalence: How common the health condition is within a specific population.
Occurs in approximately 0.5-0.9% of pregnancies, often associated with severe preeclampsia.

Risk Factors: Factors or behaviors that increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
History of preeclampsia, multiple pregnancies, obesity, pre-existing hypertension, or autoimmune disorders.

Prognosis: The expected outcome or course of the condition over time.
Favorable with prompt delivery and management; however, maternal and fetal morbidity or mortality risk is higher without early intervention.

Complications: Additional problems or conditions that may arise as a result of the original condition.
Disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC), liver rupture, kidney failure, stroke, placental abruption, preterm delivery, or maternal and fetal death.

Rhabdomyolysis-Induced Kidney Injury

Specialty: Nephrology